We perform direct numerical simulations of turbulent channel flows. Secondary motions are produced by applying a streamwise-homogeneous, spanwise-heterogeneous roughness pattern of spanwise period $\Lambda _s$ to the walls of the channel; their time evolution is observed. Notice that, owing to the geometry, the secondary motions are streamwise-invariant at any instant of time, so that no spatial development is seen. Once the secondary motions reach a statistically steady state, the roughness pattern is suddenly removed, so that the secondary motions decay. The time needed for the secondary motions to vanish is then measured; in doing so, we distinguish between the streamwise-momentum pathways and the cross-sectional circulatory motions that compose the secondary motions. Larger values of $\Lambda _s$ are generally associated with a longer time scale for the decay of the momentum pathways, although this might not hold true for $\Lambda _s/h\gt 4$ (where $h$ is the channel half-height). The value of such a time scale for the circulatory motions, instead, saturates for $\Lambda _s/h \geqslant 2$; this may be related to the observed spatial confinement of said circulatory motions. For specific values of $\Lambda _s$ ($2 \leqslant \Lambda _s/h \leqslant 4$), the volume-averaged energy associated with the momentum pathways undergoes an unexpected transient growth with respect to its value at the beginning of the decay. This might indicate that structures of such a specific size are able to self-sustain as postulated by Townsend (The Structure of Turbulent Shear Flow, 2nd edition, 1976, ch. 7.19); the evidence we gather in this respect is however inconclusive. Finally, the present data suggest that most of the energy of the momentum pathways is produced by the circulatory motions transporting the mean (spanwise-averaged) velocity.

Particle image velocimetry is used to study the control of swirl momentum, delivered through an orifice formed by a physically rotating tube of finite length, relevant to the evolution of vortex rings produced at a Reynolds number ${Re}\approx 1000$ based on the average discharge velocity, for swirl numbers ${S} \in [0, 1]$. Experiments without discharge, reinforced with complimentary numerical predictions, reveal the presence of an intriguing secondary flow pattern in the rotating tube, preventing attainment of a solid-body-like swirl distribution. Nevertheless, it is found that fully established rings produced in this way, following discharge once conditions in the tube have reached a steady state, exhibit similar characteristics to rings formed by an otherwise solid-body rotating initial condition as explored computationally by Ortega-Chavez et al. (2023, J. Fluid Mech. 967, A16). Namely, opposite-signed vorticity forms due to vortex tilting, which subsequently interacts with the ring, promoting vorticity cancellation and vortex ring breakdown. A key feature of the experimental work is that partially established vortex rings, produced before a steady-state rotating tube condition is reached, show unique characteristics. Their creation, a short time after the onset of tube rotation: (i) facilitates more efficient delivery of swirl momentum to the vortex core area; (ii) maintains a low level of swirl in the ring bubble’s central region which would otherwise promote the formation of opposite-signed vorticity and vortex breakdown.

Wave propagation in channels with area changes is a topic of significant practical interest that involves a rich set of coupled physics. While the acoustic wave problem has been studied extensively, the shock propagation problem has received less attention. In addition to its practical significance, this problem also introduces deep fundamental issues associated with how energy in propagating large-amplitude disturbances is redistributed upon interaction with inhomogeneities. This paper presents a study of shock scattering and entropy and vorticity coupling for shock wave propagation through discrete area changes. It compares results from computational fluid dynamics to those of one-dimensional quasi-steady calculations. The solution space is naturally divided into five ‘regimes’ based upon the incident shock strength and area ratio. This paper also presents perturbation methods to quantify the dimensionless scaling of physical effects associated with wave reflection/transmission and energy transfer to other disturbances. Finally, it presents an analysis of the ‘energetics’ of the interaction, quantifying how energy that initially resides in dilatational disturbances and propagates at the shock speed is redistributed into finite-amplitude reflected and transmitted waves as well as convecting vortical and entropy disturbances.

Turbulent transonic buffet is an aerodynamic instability causing periodic (albeit, often irregular) oscillations of lift/drag in aerospace applications. Involving complex coupling between inviscid and viscous effects, buffet is characterised by shock wave oscillations and flow separation/reattachment. Previous studies have identified both two-dimensional (2-D) chordwise shock-oscillation and three-dimensional (3-D) buffet-/stall-cell modes. While the 2-D instability has been studied extensively, investigations of 3-D buffet have been limited to only low-fidelity simulations or experiments. Due to computational cost, almost all high-fidelity studies to date have been limited to narrow span-widths around 5 % of aerofoil chord length (aspect ratio, ), which is insufficiently wide to observe large-scale three-dimensionality. In this work, high-fidelity simulations are performed up to , on an infinite unswept NASA Common Research Model (CRM) wing profile at $Re=5\times 10^{5}$. At , intermittent 3-D separation bubbles are observed at buffet conditions. While previous Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS)/stability-based studies predict quasi-simultaneous onset of 2-D- and 3-D-buffet, a case that remains essentially 2-D is identified here. Strongest three-dimensionality was observed near low-lift phases of the buffet cycle at maximum flow separation, reverting to essentially 2-D behaviour during high-lift phases. Buffet was found to become 3-D when extensive mean flow separation was present. At , multiple 3-D separation bubbles form in a spanwise wavelength range $\lambda =1c$ to $1.5c$. Spectral proper orthogonal decomposition (SPOD) was applied to analyse the spatio/temporal structure of 3-D buffet-cells. In addition to the 2-D chordwise shock-oscillation mode (Strouhal number $St \approx 0.07-0.1$), 3-D modal structures were observed at the shock wave/boundary layer interaction at $St \approx 0.002-0.004$.

Experiments are presented to explore the non-axisymmetric instabilities of spreading films of aqueous suspensions of Carbopol and Xanthan gum floating on a bath of perfluoropolyether oil. The experimental observations are compared against theoretical predictions exploiting a shallow-film model in which the viscoplastic rheology is captured by the Herschel–Bulkley constitutive law. With this model, we construct axisymmetric base states that evolve from the moment that the film floats onto the bath, out towards long times at which spreading becomes self-similar, and then test their linear stability towards non-axisymmetric perturbations. In the geometry of a thinning expanding film, we find that shear thinning does not drive a loss of axisymmetry at early times (when the degree of expansion is small), but when the film has expanded in radius by a factor of two or so, shear-thinning hoop stresses drive non-axisymmetric instabilities. Unstable modes possess relatively low angular wavenumber, and the loss of symmetry is not particularly dramatic. When the oil in the bath is replaced by salty water, the experiments are completely different, with dramatic non-axisymmetric patterns emerging from interfacial effects.

In this work, we investigate the mixing of active scalars in two dimensions by the stirring action of stochastically generated weak shock waves. We use Fourier pseudospectral direct numerical simulations of the interaction of shock waves with two non-reacting species to analyse the mixing dynamics for different Atwood numbers (At). Unlike passive scalars, the presence of density gradients in active scalars alters the molecular diffusion term and makes the species diffusion nonlinear, introducing a concentration gradient-driven term and a density gradient-driven nonlinear dissipation term in the concentration evolution equation. We show that the direction of concentration gradient causes the interface across which molecular diffusion occurs to expand outwards or inwards, even without any stirring action. Shock waves enhance the mixing process by increasing the perimeter of the interface and by sustaining concentration gradients. Negative Atwood number mixtures sustain concentration gradients for a longer time than positive Atwood number mixtures due to the so-called nonlinear dissipation terms. We estimate the time until that when the action of stirring is dominant over molecular mixing. We also highlight the role of baroclinicity in increasing the interface perimeter in the stirring dominant regime. We compare the stirring effect of shock waves on mixing of passive scalars with active scalars and show that the vorticity generated by baroclinicity is responsible for the folding and stretching of the interface in the case of active scalars. We conclude by showing that lighter mixtures with denser inhomogeneities ($At\lt 0$) take a longer time to homogenise than the denser mixtures with lighter inhomogeneities ($At\gt 0$).