This chapter highlights the centrality of the rule of law to Khatami’s presidential campaign. It then reviews the policies of the heads of the judiciary in the post-Khomeini era, with the most far-reaching reform initiatives occurring during the tenure of Shahroudi (1999–2009). These included trying to phase out special courts, prohibiting the security services from running their own detention and prison systems, ending the death penalty for minors, ending execution by stoning, strengthening the rights of political prisoners, and reforming the Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure. Many of these were reversed or watered down by Sadegh Larijani, head of the judiciary 2009–2019. Ebrahim Raisi (2019-2021) revived some of Shahroudi’s reforms in sentencing and also inaugurated a concerted effort to fight corruption in the judiciary. The chapter illustrates that the judiciary is not a monolith, and much of the quality of the rule of law stands and falls with its leading administrators and professionals.

Many attempts have been made to capture the essence of manipulation in a definition, but all have arguably failed. Exploring an alternative strategy, this chapter provides an account of “manipulation” as a cluster concept. Roughly, cluster concepts are characterized by sets of criteria none of which is necessary for the applicability of the cluster concept term; the different subsets of criteria that instantiate the concept are characterized by “family resemblance,” and the more criteria an instance possesses, the closer it is to be prototypical of the concept. The chapter provides a set of ten criteria that participate in the constitution of “manipulation.” They are: intention (kind); intention (intensity); getting into the target’s head; exploiting psychological vulnerability; bypassing or subverting rational control; nontransparency; effect on the target; whether the influence is exercised for the sake of the influencer; making the target a pawn in the influencer’s grand plan; and low baseline expectation of influence. Chapter 2 claimed that the concept “manipulation” is diagnosed perceptually; this fits well with understanding “manipulation” as a cluster concept, since perception determines which combinations of criteria qualify as manipulation.

A number of indices has been proposed to assess hydrological or sediment connectivity. These indices operate at different spatial scales, address different types of connectivity (hillslope-channel vs. longitudinal connectivity), are based on different spatial units (raster cell, landform, channel reach, sub-/catchment) and approaches (geomorphological mapping, digital elevation models, network analysis). Temporal constraints for the application of indices exist as connectivity depends on the magnitude of hydrometeorological forcing, and is subject to changes in landscape properties. Connectivity indices are based on variables and assumptions with respect to space and time. We review existing indices of different characteristics (raster, effective catchment area, networks) together with examples, and distinguish two types of their application: descriptive applications in which indices are used to describe spatial patterns of water and sediment (coupled and decoupled) pathways for a point or period of time; and as predictors of connectivity and its consequences (e.g., sediment transfer, sensitivity to change). Opportunities and challenges for research in connectivity indices are discussed.

The concept of connectivity appeared in several disciplines in the 1950s and 1960s, but did not enter geomorphology until the 1980s. The concept has led to profound insights into the behaviour of systems, and has had significant applications in management. Connectivity may be defined as a structured set of relationships between spatially and/or temporally distinct entities), or as the degree to which a system facilitates (or impedes) the movement of matter and energy through itself. The former definition focuses on the structure of the system, and the latter on the functioning of it. The two definitions give rise to the separate concepts of structural and functional connectivity. A fundamental difference between structural and functional connectivity lies in the fact that, whereas the former can be relatively easily measured, and a variety of tools exists to do so, the latter tends to be inferred from system behaviour, so that measurement is somewhat indirect. Notwithstanding the compelling arguments in favour of studying connectivity, the ability to apply the ideas of connectivity science in any discipline requires a number of challenges to be addressed.

This introductory chapter explains the need for adopting an overarching perspective to the allocation of limited rights. Although the applicable legal frameworks may suggest otherwise, the awards of public contracts, authorisations, subsidies or government sales share common characteristics in the event that the number of rights available for grant is limited. These similarities are nowhere as manifest as with regard to the question of whether governments should use some form of competitive tendering when allocating these ‘limited rights’. Although the public interests involved in the allocation of these limited rights differ in substance and respective weight, competitive procedures should aim to optimise the pursuit of the different public interests involved. Using Mark Moore’s theory of creating and recognising public value, this chapter provides a general reflection upon the distinct role of the legal framework for allocating governments in solving this optimisation problem.

In this text, Durand rejects a common assumption undergirding much of the Latin medieval debate about the relation between the soul and its powers. According to this assumption, which we can call the uniformity assumption, all powers of the soul that bring forth vital operations, such as the intellect and sight, bear the same relation to the soul. Identity theorists maintained that all of these powers are identical to the soul, while distinction theorists held that all of these powers are distinct from the soul. Against this consensus, Durand argues that some powers of the soul are identical to the soul, while others are distinct from it. More precisely, he advocates an identity theory with respect to the vegetative powers but a distinction theory with regard to the sensory and rational powers. He motivates his identity view regarding the vegetative powers with the argument that these powers have substances as their effects and the premise that causes must be like their effects. To motivate his distinction theory regarding the sensory and rational powers, Durand does not draw on Aquinas’ Category Argument, which he thinks is unsound.

Ernesto Galarza’s Merchants of Labor: The Mexican Bracero Story is a genealogical study of the Mexican migrant farmworker experience in California under the Bracero Program. His study was a direct response to the deaths of thirty-two migrant workers in the Chualar bus crash of 1963. Galarza traces the political-economic origin “story” of this labor force and its role within a historical moment defined by rapid increases in modernization. Of considerable importance are his insights regarding the central characteristics of an emerging neoliberal paradigm, which are brilliantly grounded in his analysis of how Mexican braceros were transformed into a disembodied “labor pool” for US agribusiness. The chapter examines Galarza’s critique of the Bracero Program and his analysis of early farmworker struggles against exploitative labor practices, particularly the manner in which “labor pools” were used to transform the concrete existentiality of the bracero into a commodity abstraction, thus establishing a blueprint for the systemic exploitation of racially marginalized peoples. The chapter concludes by addressing how Chicana/o activists affiliated themselves with the farmworker struggle after the Chualar tragedy, thus bridging the rural–urban divide while calling attention to the movement’s anti-war protests and demands for political reform.

This chapter reinterprets the demise of the Board of Longitude in 1828, which has been seen as resulting from reformist pressure or financial retrenchment. Such accounts underestimate continuation of the Board’s activities, notably managing chronometers, producing the Nautical Almanac and providing scientific advice. Changes were initially driven by Joseph Banks’s interests, notably the appointment of Royal Society fellows and Resident Commissioners including Thomas Young, who became secretary and a key organiser after Banks’s death. Schemes such as rewards for finding the Northwest Passage, improvement of optical glass, determining the figure of the Earth and the foundation of the Cape Observatory, were managed under Young’s aegis. The role of the Admiralty and its Secretaries John Wilson Croker and John Barrow were decisive. The Longitude Act of 1818 brought the Board under Admiralty control, and that of 1828 moved its work into the Admiralty. An Admiralty committee comprising Young and natural philosophers Michael Faraday and Edward Sabine was formed; the Nautical Almanac and chronometer testing remained within the Admiralty’s financial remit.

This chapter lays the foundation for how the field of second language acquisition arose. We briefly review the pioneering work in the late 1950s and 1960s in first language acquisition (e.g., Berko Gleason, Brown, Klima & Bellugi). We also review the generative revolution in linguistics and how it laid the groundwork for the idea of constrained language acquisition. We then review the seminal articles by S. Pit Corder (1967) and Larry Selinker (1972) that posited the major questions in second language acquisition, and end with the pioneering work that mirrored research in first language acquisition (e.g., Dulay & Burt, Krashen, Wode). We end the chapter with the major question that launched second language acquisition research in the early 1970s: Are L1 and L2 acquisition similar or different?

This chapter departs from the assumption that, notwithstanding that transparency is an essential element of competitive allocation of limited rights, it is also a diffuse concept. There are many different transparency obligations, and not all obligations have the same effect on the realization of public interests. Based on an overview of the different types of transparency obligations, this chapter explores the relation between the various types of transparency obligations and traditional market goals on the one hand, and transparency obligations and other general interests on the other. The purpose of the analysis is to answer the question of how these transparency obligations should be designed to balance the various interests that are pursued with competitive allocation of limited rights, whenever transparency is concerned.

Vegetation cover in drylands tends to be sparse and organised as a mosaic of patches with high biomass interspersed within a bare soil component. Water availability and vegetation are tightly coupled in these environments, where landscape function is determined by hydrologic and sediment connectivity. In this chapter, we analyse and synthesise previous studies describing how understanding, measuring and modifying connectivity can be used to guide the design of management strategies aiming at improving landscape resilience. We describe how drylands are very sensitive to both water and wind erosion, which have the potential to increase connectivity beyond tipping points at which the system transitions abruptly to a degraded state that may be irreversible. We discuss methods for the identification of early warning indicators of transition to degraded states, which could be used as a preventive management tool. We also describe existing strategies and approaches to reduce connectivity at different spatial scales as a way of managing degraded landscapes.

This chapter defines what kind of input contains the data necessary for acquisition (communicatively embedded input) and focuses on its fundamental role in acquisition. Subsequently, we review the claims on the role of output and interaction, focusing on these major issues: Comprehensible output is necessary for acquisition; comprehensible output is beneficial for acquisition; comprehensible output does little to nothing for acquisition. We also discuss the nature of interaction more generally, focusing on whether interaction affects the acquisition of formal features of language.

Nina Nurmila provides a review of key scholarly figures in the field of Islamic feminism and their methodological approaches. She emphasizes how, in Indonesia, their influence has permeated the wider Muslim community more effectively than in other contexts, thanks to local scholars disseminating their ideas through vernacular Islamic scholarship.