Little is known of the beverage intake patterns of Canadian children or of characteristics within these patterns. The objective was to determine beverage intake patterns among Canadian children and compare intakes of fourteen types of beverages, along with intakes of vitamin C and Ca, and sociodemographic factors across clusters.

Dietary information was collected using one 24 h recall. Sociodemographic data were collected by interview. Cluster analysis was used to determine beverage intake patterns. Pearson's χ2 and 95 % CI were used to test differences across clusters.

Data from the Canadian Community Health Survey Cycle 2·2.

Children aged 2–18 years with plausible energy intake and complete sociodemographic data (n 10 038) were grouped into the following categories: 2–5-year-old boys and girls, 6–11-year-old girls, 6–11-year-old boys, 12–18-year-old girls and 12–18-year-old boys.

Five beverage clusters emerged for children aged 2–5 years, six clusters for children aged 6–11 years (both sexes) and four clusters for those aged 12–18 years (both sexes). Sweetened beverage clusters appeared in all age–sex groups. Intakes of sweetened beverages ranged from 553 to 1059 g/d and contributed between 2 % and 18 % of total energy intake. Girls 6–11 years of age in the ‘soft drink’ cluster had lower Ca intake compared with other clusters in that age–sex group. Age and ethnicity differed across clusters for most age–sex groups. Differences for household food security status and income were found; however, no pattern emerged.

Patterns in beverage intake among Canadian children include beverages that are predominantly sugar sweetened. Public health nutrition professionals can use knowledge about beverage patterns among children, as well as the characteristics of these groups, in the development of nutritional programmes and policies.

To assess the iodine status of long-term refugees dependent on international food aid and humanitarian assistance.

A series of cross-sectional two-stage cluster or systematic random sample surveys which assessed urinary iodine excretion and the prevalence of visible goitre. Salt samples were also collected and tested for iodine content by titration.

Six refugee camps in East, North and Southern Africa.

Male and female adolescents aged 10–19 years.

The median urinary iodine concentration (UIC) ranged from 254 to 1200 μg l−1 and in five of the camps exceeded the recommended maximum limit of 300 μg l−1, indicating excessive iodine intake. Visible goitre was assessed in four surveys where it ranged from 0.0 to 7.1%. The camp with the highest UIC also had the highest prevalence of visible goitre. The iodine concentrations in 11 salt samples from three camps were measured by titration and six of these exceeded the production-level concentration of 20 to 40 ppm recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), but were all less than 100 ppm.

Excessive consumption of iodine is occurring in most of the surveyed populations. Urgent revision of the level of salt iodisation is required to meet current WHO recommendations. However, the full cause of excessive iodine excretion remains unknown and further investigation is required urgently to identify the cause, assess any health impact and identify remedial action.

To evaluate the impact of the disaggregation of composite foods on intake estimates of meat and individual meat categories and on the contribution of meat to nutrient intakes in Irish adults.

Data were analysed from the North/South Ireland Food Consumption Survey, which used a 7-day food diary to estimate food intake. Of 742 food codes that contained meat, 320 were codes for meat consumed as an individual portion and 422 were composite foods and were disaggregated to estimate the meat content.

A nationally representative sample of 475 men and 483 women (not pregnant or lactating) from the Republic of Ireland aged 18–64 years.

The mean intake of meat was 134 g day−1 in consumers (98.5%) and men (168 g day−1) consumed significantly more (P < 0.001) than women (102 g day−1). Mean intakes of meat were higher in subjects with manual skilled occupations (P < 0.01) and lower in those with third-level educational qualifications (P < 0.05). Without disaggregating meat from composite foods, meat intake was overestimated by 43% (57 g day−1) and varied widely by meat category. Meat disaggregated from composite foods contributed 25% of meat intake. The contribution meat made to nutrient intakes ranged from 29% for protein, vitamin B12, zinc and niacin to 20% for vitamin D, 16% for vitamin B6, 15% for thiamine and 14% for iron.

Failure to disaggregat meat from composite foods substantially overestimates meat intake, with a large variation between meat categories. This has important implications for estimates of meat intakes in nutritional epidemiological studies and for food safety purposes.

To evaluate the 5-year incidence of obesity in a sample of CVD-free adults and investigate the potential effect of several sociodemographic and lifestyle habits on weight change and obesity incidence in these individuals.

Men (n 1514) and women (n 1528) (>18 years) without any clinical evidence of CVD, living in the Attica area of Greece, were enrolled in the ATTICA study from May 2001 to December 2002. The sampling was random, multistage and included information about various sociodemographic, lifestyle (diet, exercise and smoking), biochemical and clinical characteristics. In 2006, the 5-year follow-up was performed through telephone calls or personal visits. Data from the 1364 participants are analysed in the present work.

The 5-year incidence of obesity was 21·8 % in men and 11·9 % in women. The ratio of men to women revealed that more men than women developed obesity, while more women than men became overweight during the follow-up period. It was found that men were 1·6 times more likely to develop obesity compared with women; abnormal waist circumference, smoking habits and the presence of hypercholesterolaemia increased the risk for developing obesity, irrespective of age and baseline lifestyle characteristics of the participants. In the multivariate analysis, no association was detected between adherence to a Mediterranean diet and incidence of obesity in initially normal-weight individuals.

Obesity remains a serious health problem for the Greek population; the alarming rates of excess body weight continue to increase. Preventive measures should be urgently addressed, targeting particularly those with metabolic risk factors.

To investigate trends in five key aspects of Australian food practice which have been implicated in diet-related health risks, specifically energy intake. They are: the replacement of home-prepared foods by commercially prepared foods; consumer reliance on ultra-processed foods; de-structured dining; increased pace of eating; and a decline in commensal eating.

Data were from repeated cross-sections from the national Household Expenditure and Time Use Surveys. Trends in food practice aspects were examined using indicators of food expenditure across different food groups and time spent eating and cooking, including where, when and with whom eating activities took place.

Australia, 1989–2010.

Nationally representative samples of Australian households.

The share of the total food budget spent on food away from home rose steadily from 22·8 % in 1989 to 26·5 % in 2010, while spending on ultra-processed foods increased. The basic patterning of meals and the pace of eating changed little, although people spent more time eating alone and at restaurants. Cooking time declined considerably, particularly for women.

These changes have occurred over the same time that obesity and diet-related, non-communicable diseases have increased rapidly in Australia. Some aspects are implicated more than others: particularly the shift from domestic cooking to use of pre-prepared and ultra-processed foods, a reduction in time spent in food preparation and cooking, as well as an upsurge in time and money devoted to eating away from home. These are all likely to operate through the higher energy content of commercially prepared, compared with unprocessed or lightly processed, foods.

To investigate the association of regional fat depots with metabolic risk factors in Chinese women.

Total and regional fat depots including android fat and gynoid fat were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Central fat distribution was defined as android:gynoid fat ratio. Metabolic risk factors were defined as elevated TAG, reduced HDL-cholesterol, elevated blood pressure and elevated fasting plasma glucose. Logistic regression analyses were performed to examine the associations of regional fat depots with metabolic risk factors. The odds ratios of metabolic risks were further calculated according to tertiles of android fat and gynoid fat.

Participants were recruited from a community-based cross-sectional study. Face-to-face questionnaires, anthropometric and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry measures were conducted.

Chinese women (n 609) aged 18–79 years.

Android fat and android:gynoid fat ratio were associated with significantly increased odds (OR = 1·4–3·7; P < 0·01) for almost all risk factors, whereas gynoid fat was independently associated with significantly decreased odds (OR = 0·3–0·6; P < 0·01). The inverse associations of gynoid fat with metabolic risk factors remained after adjusting for android fat. Even if their android fat level was in high, women in the highest tertile of gynoid fat had lower odds of having at least two metabolic risk factors compared with women in the lowest gynoid fat tertile (P for trend < 0·01).

There were opposite associations of android and gynoid fat with metabolic risks in Chinese women. Gynoid fat rather than android fat might be a more important inclusion in metabolic disease risk evaluation in female Asians.

Many Iranian adolescent girls are Fe-deficient, but it is unclear whether Fe deficiency is associated with other nutritional risk indicators. The present study aimed to investigate the association between Fe deficiency and weight status (measured as BMI) among a representative sample of adolescent girls.

A cross-sectional study. Fe-deficient high-school girls (with or without anaemia) were selected by systematic random sampling among all students in grades 1 to 4 from high schools for girls. Blood samples were collected and analysed for Hb, haematocrit, serum ferritin, Fe and total Fe binding capacity. Weight and height were measured. BMI was calculated and compared with age- and gender-specific BMI reference values.

South Iran.

A total of 431 adolescent girls aged 13–20 years.

Some 15·3 % of the participants were at risk for overweight and 9·5 % of them were overweight. An inverse association was found between serum ferritin and BMI (r = −0·38, β = −0·21, P < 0·001). Anaemia was more prevalent among overweight Fe-deficient adolescents than among those Fe-deficient and at risk for overweight or normal weight (34·1 % v. 28·8 % v. 27·8 %, respectively; P < 0·001).

An inverse association was found between BMI and serum ferritin. Overweight adolescents demonstrated an increased prevalence of Fe-deficiency anaemia. It seems that both abnormalities of weight and Fe status should simultaneously be targeted in overweight female adolescents.

We conducted a hospital-based, case–control study to examine the association between dietary patterns and the risk of oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma in Iran.

A total of forty-seven patients with oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma and ninety-six controls underwent face-to-face interviews. Factor analysis was used to detect dietary patterns. Multivariate logistic regression was used to estimate OR and 95 % CI.

We defined two major dietary patterns in this population: ‘healthy diet’ (high in vegetables, nuts, fruits, low-fat dairy and fish) and ‘western diet’ (high in solid oil, sugar, sweets, tea, eggs, pickles and processed meat). Both healthy and western pattern scores were divided into two categories (based on medians). Higher healthy pattern scores were significantly associated with decreased risk of oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma (high: second median v. low: first median, OR = 0·17, 95 % CI 0·19, 0·98). An increased risk of oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma was observed with the western pattern (high: second median v. low: first median, OR = 10·13, 95 % CI 8·45, 43·68).

The results of the present study suggested that diet might be associated with oesophageal carcinoma.

The present study examined longitudinal associations between four family meal patterns (i.e. never had regular family meals, started having regular family meals, stopped having regular family meals, maintained having regular family meals) and young adult parents’ dietary intake, weight-related behaviours and psychosocial well-being. In addition, family meal patterns of parents were compared with those of non-parents.

Analysis of data from the longitudinal Project EAT (Eating and Activity in Adolescents and Young Adults) study. Linear and logistic regressions were used to examine the associations between family meal patterns and parents’ dietary intake, weight-related behaviours and psychosocial well-being.

School and in-home settings.

At baseline (1998; EAT-I), adolescents (n 4746) from socio-economically and racially/ethnically diverse households completed a survey and anthropometric measurements at school. At follow-up (2015; EAT-IV), participants who were parents (n 726) and who were non-parents with significant others (n 618) completed an online survey.

Young adult parents who reported having regular family meals as an adolescent and as a parent (‘maintainers’), or who started having regular family meals with their own families (‘starters’), reported more healthful dietary, weight-related and psychosocial outcomes compared with young adults who never reported having regular family meals (‘nevers’; P<0·05). In addition, parents were more likely to be family meal starters than non-parents.

Results suggest that mental and physical health benefits of having regular family meals may be realized as a parent whether the routine of regular family meals is carried forward from adolescence into parenthood, or if the routine is started in parenthood.

To assess racial/ethnic differences in the diet in young children and the explanatory role of maternal BMI, immigrant status and perception of child's weight.

Among white, black and Hispanic 3-year-olds, we used negative binomial and linear regression to examine associations of race/ethnicity with foods and nutrients assessed by a validated FFQ.

Project Viva, Boston (MA), USA.

Children aged 3 years (n 898).

Mean age was 38·3 (sd 2·8) months; 464 (52 %) were boys and 127 mothers (14 %) were immigrants. After adjustment for sociodemographic factors, black and Hispanic children (v. white) had a higher intake of sugar-sweetened beverages (rate ratio (RR) = 2·59 (95 % CI 1·95, 3·48) and RR = 1·59 (95 % CI 1·07, 2·47), respectively) and lower intakes of skimmed/1 % milk (RR = 0·42 (95 % CI 0·33, 0·53) and RR = 0·43 (95 % CI 0·31, 0·61), respectively) and trans-fat (−0·10 (95 % CI −0·18, −0·03) % of energy and −0·15 (95 % CI −0·26, −0·04) % of energy, respectively). Among Hispanics only, a lower intake of snack food (RR = 0·83 (95 % CI 0·72, 0·98)) was found and among blacks only, a higher intake of fast food (RR = 1·28 (95 % CI 1·05, 1·55)) and lower intakes of saturated fat (−0·86 (95 % CI −1·48, −0·23) % of energy), dietary fibre (0·85 (95 % CI 0·08, 1·62) g/d) and Ca (−120 (95 % CI −175, −65) mg/d) were found. Being born outside the USA was associated with more healthful nutrient intakes and less fast food.

Three-year-old black and Hispanic (v. white) children ate more sugar-sweetened beverages and less low-fat dairy. Total energy intake was substantially higher in Hispanic children. Snack food (Hispanic children) and fat intakes (black children) tended to be lower. Children of immigrants ate less fast food and bad fats and more fibre.

To investigate time patterns of compliance with nutrient goals recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO).

A single aggregated indicator of distance from the key WHO recommendations for a healthy diet is built using FAOSTAT intake data, bounded between 0 (maximum possible distance from goals) and 1 (perfect adherence). Two hypotheses are tested for different country groupings: (1) whether adherence has improved over time; and (2) whether cross-country disparities in terms of diet healthiness have decreased.

One hundred and forty-nine countries, including 26 countries belonging to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and 115 developing countries (including 43 least developed countries), with yearly data over the period 1961–2002.

The Recommendation Compliance Index (RCI) shows significant improvements in adherence to WHO goals for both developing and especially OECD countries. The latter group of countries show the highest levels of the RCI and the largest increase over time, especially between 1981 and 2002. No improvement is detected for least developed countries. A reduction in disparities (convergence of the RCI) is observed only within the OECD grouping.

Adherence to healthy eating guidelines depends on economic development. Diets are improving and converging in advanced economies, but developing and especially least developed countries are still far from meeting WHO nutrition goals. This confirms findings on the double burden of malnutrition and suggests that economic drivers are more relevant than socio-cultural factors in determining the healthiness of diets.

Diet and nutrition in childhood has been associated with the risk of chronic disease later in life. The aim of this review was to identify key characteristics of successful experiential nutrition interventions aimed to change nutrition-related cognitive and behavioural outcomes in primary schoolchildren.

A systematic literature review was undertaken using search terms (‘food security’, ‘school’, ‘nutrition’ and ‘program’) applied to five scientific databases (CINAHL, Scopus, Web of Science, Medline and Academic Search complete), with outcomes defined as nutrition-related knowledge, attitudes and/or dietary behaviours.

Primary school-aged children exposed to interventions conducted, at least partially, on school grounds.

A total of 3800 articles were identified from the initial search and manual searching, of which sixty-seven articles were eligible for inclusion. Forty-two articles met the criteria of being successful, defined as achieving significant differences in outcomes of interest, accompanied by a demonstrated reach. Interventions included school gardens (n 9), food provision (n 5), taste testing (n 8), cooking classes (n 10) and multicomponent programmes (n 10). Nutrition education (when combined with taste testing), cooking-related activities and gardening interventions increased children’s willingness to taste unfamiliar foods including new fruits and vegetables, improved their cooking and food preparation skills and increased nutritional knowledge.

This review provides evidence that nutrition education programmes in primary schoolchildren that are experiential in nature are most likely to be successful if they include multiple strategies, have parental involvement and focus specifically on vegetable intake.

Children may influence household spending through ‘pester power’. The present study examined pestering through parent–child food shopping behaviours in relation to children’s diet and weight status.

Cross-sectional and prospective analyses drawn from the IDEFICS study, a cohort study of parents and their children. Children’s height and weight were measured and their recent diets were reported by parental proxy based on the Children’s Eating Habits Questionnaire-FFQ at baseline and 2-year follow-up. Parents also completed questionnaires at both time points about pestering, including whether the child goes grocery shopping with them, asks for items seen on television and is bought requested food items.

Participants were recruited from eight European countries for the IDEFICS study (non-nationally representative sample).

Study participants were children aged 2–9 years at enrolment and their parents. A total of 13 217 parent–child dyads were included at baseline. Two years later, 7820 of the children were re-examined.

Most parents (63 %) at baseline reported ‘sometimes’ acquiescing to their children’s requests to purchase specific foods. Pestering was modestly associated with weight and diet. At baseline, children whose parents ‘often’ complied consumed more high-sugar and high-fat foods. Children who ‘often’ asked for items seen on television were likely to become overweight after 2 years (OR=1·31), whereas ‘never’ asking protected against overweight (OR=0·72).

Pestering was modestly related to diet and weight in cross-sectional, but not longitudinal analyses. Asking for items seen on television had the most robust relationships across child outcomes and over time.

To describe why and how capacity-building systems for scaling up nutrition programmes should be constructed in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC).

Position paper with task force recommendations based on literature review and joint experience of global nutrition programmes, public health nutrition (PHN) workforce size, organization, and pre-service and in-service training.

The review is global but the recommendations are made for LMIC scaling up multisectoral nutrition programmes.

The multitude of PHN workers, be they in the health, agriculture, education, social welfare, or water and sanitation sector, as well as the community workers who ensure outreach and coverage of nutrition-specific and -sensitive interventions.

Overnutrition and undernutrition problems affect at least half of the global population, especially those in LMIC. Programme guidance exists for undernutrition and overnutrition, and priority for scaling up multisectoral programmes for tackling undernutrition in LMIC is growing. Guidance on how to organize and scale up such programmes is scarce however, and estimates of existing PHN workforce numbers – although poor – suggest they are also inadequate. Pre-service nutrition training for a PHN workforce is mostly clinical and/or food science oriented and in-service nutrition training is largely restricted to infant and young child nutrition.

Unless increased priority and funding is given to building capacity for scaling up nutrition programmes in LMIC, maternal and child undernutrition rates are likely to remain high and nutrition-related non-communicable diseases to escalate. A hybrid distance learning model for PHN workforce managers’ in-service training is urgently needed in LMIC.

The present study evaluates the reliability and validity of an FFQ designed for use with adolescents in urban Vietnam.

A cohort study was conducted between December 2003 and June 2004. The FFQ was administered three times over a 6-month period (FFQ 1–3) and nutrient intakes were compared to those obtained from four 24 h recalls collected over the same period (24 h recalls 1–4) using crude, energy-adjusted and de-attenuated correlation coefficients. The level of agreement between the two measurements was also evaluated with Bland–Altman analysis. The percentage of nutrient intakes classified within one quintile, as well as quadratic-weighted kappa statistics, were calculated.

Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

A total of 180 students were recruited in three junior high schools.

Coefficients ranged from 0·22 for retinol to 0·78 for fibre for short-term reliability, and from 0·30 for retinol to 0·81 for zinc for long-term reliability. Coefficients for nutrient intakes between the mean of the three FFQ and mean of four 24 h recalls were mostly around 0·40, but higher for energy-adjusted nutrients. After allowing for within-person variation, the mean coefficient was 0·52 for macronutrients and 0·46 for micronutrients. There were a relatively high proportion of nutrient intakes classified within one quintile and a small number grossly misclassified. Kappa values shows ‘fair’ to ‘good’ agreement for all food/nutrient categories, while the Bland–Altman plots indicated that the FFQ is accurate in assessing nutrient intake at a group level.

This newly developed FFQ is a valid tool for measuring nutrient intake in adolescents in urban Vietnam.

To investigate the feasibility and impact of the Food-O-Meter, an Internet-based computer-tailored nutrition intervention in adolescents.

Participants in the intervention condition received the computer-tailored advice at baseline and at 1 month, those in the control condition received standardised advice. Effects were evaluated at 1 month (n 621) and at 3 months (n 558) using multi-level modelling.

Secondary schools in six European cities. Adolescents accessed the intervention in the school computer room under the supervision of teachers.

Classes with students aged 12–17 years in the schools participating in the HELENA (Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence) cross-sectional study were randomised into intervention and control schools.

In most participating centres the intervention was feasible and generally well appreciated, especially by girls. Technical problems and lack of motivation of the teachers hindered implementation in some centres. Overweight adolescents had higher scores for reading and using the advice than normal weight adolescents. After 1 month adolescents receiving the standardised advice reported an increase in fat intake, while fat intake in the intervention condition was stable (F = 4·82, P < 0·05). After 3 months, there was a trend in the total group for an intervention effect of the tailored advice on fat intake (F = 2·80, P < 0·10). In the overweight group there was a clear positive effect (F = 5·76, P < 0·05).

The Food-O-Meter should be developed further. The results were modest but clear for percentage energy from fat, specifically in the overweight group. Adaptations based on new research are needed to enhance the reliability and effectiveness of the intervention.

The relationship between workplace absenteeism and adverse lifestyle factors (smoking, physical inactivity and poor dietary patterns) remains ambiguous. Reliance on self-reported absenteeism and obesity measures may contribute to this uncertainty. Using objective absenteeism and health status measures, the present study aimed to investigate what health status outcomes and lifestyle factors influence workplace absenteeism.

Cross-sectional data were obtained from a complex workplace dietary intervention trial, the Food Choice at Work Study.

Four multinational manufacturing workplaces in Cork, Republic of Ireland.

Participants included 540 randomly selected employees from the four workplaces. Annual count absenteeism data were collected. Physical assessments included objective health status measures (BMI, midway waist circumference and blood pressure). FFQ measured diet quality from which DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) scores were constructed. A zero-inflated negative binomial (zinb) regression model examined associations between health status outcomes, lifestyle characteristics and absenteeism.

The mean number of absences was 2·5 (sd 4·5) d. After controlling for sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics, the zinb model indicated that absenteeism was positively associated with central obesity, increasing expected absence rate by 72 %. Consuming a high-quality diet and engaging in moderate levels of physical activity were negatively associated with absenteeism and reduced expected frequency by 50 % and 36 %, respectively. Being in a managerial/supervisory position also reduced expected frequency by 50 %.

To reduce absenteeism, workplace health promotion policies should incorporate recommendations designed to prevent and manage excess weight, improve diet quality and increase physical activity levels of employees.

Previously recorded rates of obesity in the Baltic Republics have been among the highest in the world although little is known about how they vary within the population. This study investigates the distribution of body mass index (BMI) and obesity in these countries.

Three cross-sectional surveys conducted in the summer of 1997.

Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

Representative national samples of adults with measured weight and height (Estonia: n = 1154; Latvia: n = 2292; Lithuania: n = 2096).

Between-country differences are particularly large among women: women from Latvia and Lithuania are approximately three times as likely to be obese as those from Estonia (17.4%, 18.3%, 6.0% respectively); only about one-third of this difference is explained by the sociodemographic and behavioural factors studied. In men, the prevalence of obesity varied only slightly among countries (Estonia: 9.9%; Latvia: 9.5%; Lithuania: 11.4%). While the prevalence of obesity increases with age within each republic, particularly in women, it is not associated with nationality or urban/rural region, and no consistent association is observed with income. Obesity is inversely related to education in Latvia and in Lithuanian women. Latvian men and women and Lithuanian men who smoked had a lower prevalence of obesity than non-smokers. Leisure time physical activity was not associated with obesity.

Obesity is a major health problem in the Baltic Republics, particularly among Latvian and Lithuanian women. The lack of association between obesity and most demographic, socioeconomic and behavioural factors suggests that the problem is generalized. Health promotion strategies aiming at preventing and controlling excess weight gain in the Baltic Republics will need to target the general population.

Initiatives promoting the reduction of high-salt food consumption by consumers need to be partly based on current levels of salt knowledge in the population. However, to date there is no validated salt knowledge questionnaire that could be used to assess population knowledge about dietary salt (i.e. salt knowledge). Therefore, the aim of the present study was to develop and validate a salt knowledge questionnaire.

A cross-sectional study was conducted on an online web survey platform using convenience, snowball sampling. The survey questionnaire was evaluated for content and face validity before being administered to the respondents.

Online survey.

A total of forty-one nutrition experts, thirty-two nutrition students and thirty-six lay people participated in the study.

Item analyses were performed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the test items. Twenty-five items were retained to form the final set of questions. The total scores of the experts were higher than those of the students and lay people (P < 0·05). The total salt knowledge score showed significant correlations with use of salt at the table (ρ = −0·197, P < 0·05) and inspection of the salt content in food products when shopping (ρ = 0·400; P < 0·01).

The questionnaire demonstrated sufficient evidence of construct validity and internal consistencies between the items. It is likely to be a useful tool for the evaluation and measurement of levels of salt knowledge in the general population.

To assess the 1999–2000 food security situation and the food relief programmes in Ethiopia, and evaluate the need for a national food and nutrition policy.

A systematic search of data sources from the Ethiopian Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commission (DPPC), the Ethiopian Central Statistical Authority, the World Food Programme (WFP) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the bibliographic database Medline and direct contacts with associations, institutions and people concerned with food security in Ethiopia.

Consultations to WFP Ethiopia.

Food availability was severely restricted due to recurrent disasters such as drought, flood, war and a lack of diversity of food items. Food accessibility was limited due to a weak subsistence-agriculture-based economy, depletion of assets, absence of income diversity and a lack of alternative coping mechanisms. Food intake adequacy was rarely achieved due to food shortages, improper diet and poor sanitary conditions. There was a lack of early warning data to monitor food security indicators. Food aid programmes did not meet the requirements for food quantities and composition, and faced major obstacles in logistics and targeting of the vulnerable population.

Improvements in food security and the eradication of famine will require investment in sustainable projects. There is an immediate need for better planning and targeting of food aid and a national food security monitoring system. A national food and nutrition policy is recommended, focusing both on relief efforts and on underlying factors contributing to the famine.