Increased amino acid content in high-oil maize (Zea mays L.) grain may add further value to its use in livestock rations, especially if this enhanced amino acid content is consistent across varying growing conditions. Most high-oil maize (HOM) grown in the USA utilizes the TopCross system which involves planting a blend (TC Blend) of two types of maize. Field experiments and on-farm studies were conducted in 1997 and 1998 to compare the amino acid profile of grain from HOM TC Blends with that of their normal-oil maize (NOM) counterparts across a range of production environments in Ohio. In 1997, the composition of four amino acids (lysine, methionine, glycine and arginine) was significantly higher in HOM compared to NOM grain. In 1998, nine amino acids (lysine, methionine, glycine, arginine, asparagine, threonine, serine, cysteine and tryptophan) were greater in HOM than in NOM grain. Lysine and methionine content in HOM grain averaged 12 and 13% higher than in NOM grain in both years. The number of amino acids significantly affected by the grain parent was greater than that for maize type each year. A significant maize type × grain parent interaction for a limited number of amino acids suggest that TC Blend grain parents may affect the consistency of amino acid composition in HOM grain. Results of this study demonstrate that the levels of several amino acids, including economically important lysine and methionine, were consistently greater in HOM than in NOM grain across a range of production environments. Modelling with livestock ration balancing software showed that the additional amino acids and oil in HOM added 12–20% to its value as livestock feed.

Applied genetics combined with practical plant breeding is a powerful tool in agricultural development and for food security. The Green Revolution spurred the world's potential to meet its food, feed and fibre needs at a time when vast regions were notoriously food-insecure. Subsequent adaptations of such strategies, from the late 1980s onwards, in order to develop new plant varieties in a more participatory way, have strengthened the focus on applying technology to farmers' diverse needs, feeding research results into a variety of seed systems. During these developments, there were no major legal impediments to the acquisition of either local or formal knowledge or of the building blocks of plant breeding: genetic resources. The emergence of molecular biology in plant science is creating a wealth of opportunities, both to understand better the limitations of crop production and to use a much wider array of genetic diversity in crop improvement. This ‘Gene Revolution’ needs to incorporate the lessons from the Green Revolution in order to reach its target groups. However, the policy environment has changed. Access to technologies is complicated by the spread of private rights (intellectual property rights), and access to genetic resources by new national access laws. Policies on access to genetic resources have changed from the concept of the ‘Heritage of Mankind’ for use for the benefit of all mankind to ‘National Sovereignty’, based on the Convention on Biological Diversity, for negotiated benefit-sharing between a provider and a user. The Generation Challenge Programme intends to use genomic techniques to identify and use characteristics that are of value to the resource-poor, and is looking for ways to promote freedom-to-operate for plant breeding technologies and materials. Biodiversity provides the basis for the effective use of these genomic techniques. National access regulations usually apply to all biodiversity indiscriminately and may cause obstacles or delays in the use of genetic resources in agriculture. Different policies are being developed in different regions. Some emphasize benefit-sharing, and limit access in order to implement this (the ‘African Model Law’), while others, in recognition of countries' interdependence, provide for facilitated access to all genetic resources under the jurisdiction of countries in the region (the Nordic Region). There are good reasons why the use of agricultural biodiversity needs to be regulated differently from industrial uses of biodiversity. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which entered into force in 2004, provides for facilitated access to agricultural genetic resources, at least for the crops that are included in the Treaty's ‘Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-sharing’. Ratification of the Treaty is proceeding apace, and negotiations have entered a critical stage in the development of practical instruments for its implementation. Although the scope of the Treaty is all plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, there are important crops that are not covered by its Multilateral System. Humanitarian licences are being used to provide access for the poor to protected technologies: countries may need to create such a general humanitarian access regime, to ensure the poor have the access they need to agricultural genetic resources.

Wild relative of okra, Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn. was identified as a resistant germplasm for Okra Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus (OYVMV) which is the devastating disease for okra cultivation in Sri Lanka. The mode of resistance of OYVMV in A. angulosus was studied with the aim of tagging responsible genes for the disease resistance. Wide hybridization was performed between A. angulosus and highly virus susceptible A. esculentus variety, MI-7. Very poor seed setting was observed in F1 and F2 generations due to post zygotic abortion. Disease screening was carried out using F1 and F2:3 populations along with parents in the field under induced disease pressure. Disease severity index and area under disease progress curve were calculated to measure disease severity. Number of genes segregating for OYVMV disease resistance was calculated for the F2:3 generation. Modified Wright's formula was used to estimate the effective gene number and mode of inheritance by a quantitative method. A χ2 test was performed for qualitative analysis. Plants of A. angulosus were totally free of virus incidence while 100% disease incidence was observed in the variety MI-7. F2:3 population showed between and within progeny segregation for disease incidence. Results indicated that the disease susceptibility was dominant over resistance. χ2 analysis revealed that the segregation of disease severity was significantly fit to the gene model of 9:6:1 (χ2 = 0.1757 at P ≤ 0.05) suggesting the disease resistance in A. angulosus is governing by two recessive genes in an additive manner. Result was confirmed by the quantitative analysis.

In order to highlight the genetic status and origin of Moroccan apricot populations, trees were collected from ten oasis agroecosystems and analysed with AFLP markers. A total of 87 accessions and 12 cultivars grown in Moroccan orchards, including ‘Canino’ and ‘Del Patriarca’ cultivars, were surveyed and compared with in situ Tunisian and ex situ Montfavet (France) collections. Our results highlighted a narrow genetic diversity in the Maghreb region (Tunisia and Morocco) associated with a strong differentiation from the other groups, which supports a bottleneck effect. A similar model was illustrated at a finer geographical scale, i.e. the Draa Valley in Morocco. Genetic structure appeared as two major clusters subdivided into six sub-clusters in which Moroccan germplasm constituted specific groups in comparison with other Mediterranean apricots. Moroccan germplasm was classified into three sub-clusters, two of which were formed by genotypes related to ‘Del Patriarca’ and ‘Canino’, respectively. The present study highlights the wide Moroccan apricot's diversity in traditional agroecosystems, and also suggests a substantial gene flow occurring from recently introduced cultivars (‘Canino’ and ‘Del Patriarca’) to local apricot populations, thus leading to local germplasm diversification through seedling propagation. If we consider its geographical position, the historical diffusion of the species and farming practices, Morocco could be viewed as an additional centre of secondary diversification for apricot. Understanding the origin and specificity of local apricot populations is crucial for managing local collections in regard to adaptive traits for arid and Saharan conditions as well as for introducing local genetic resources into current breeding programmes.

To preliminarily evaluate the genetic diversity of the Iranian diploid Triticum L. gene pool, in this study, a total of 176 individuals belonging to T. monococcum L. ssp. aegilopoides (Link) Thell. and T. urartu Thum. ex Gandil. were pre-screened using single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis of the Acc-1 and Pgk-1 loci. A selected set of 76 DNA samples corresponding to the observed SSCP variants were sequenced for both loci and evaluated for nucleotide diversity associated with the taxonomic groups and geographical regions. We found three haplotypes, including one that was new for Iran, at each locus. Population structure and analysis of molecular variation results proved that the collection evaluated could be genetically divided into two distinct groups, which to a great extent was in accordance with the taxonomic classification. A genetic leakage from T. monococcum ssp. aegilopoides into T. urartu was observed during structure analysis, which was inferred on the basis of occasional outcrossing, despite their inbreeding nature. The results revealed that there was no variation within the populations belonging to T. urartu, while a meaningful variation was found between the geographical regions for T. monococcum ssp. aegilopoides. The median-joining networks revealed a conflict between morphology and haplotype variation, which was interpreted on the basis of introgressive hybridization, recombination signature and rapid speciation. In conclusion, we suggest that SSCP analysis is a useful tool in regions where thorough sequencing of an enormous number of DNA samples is time consuming and not affordable.

Triticum monococcum L. and T. boeoticum L., diploid wild relatives of bread wheat (T. aestivum L.), possess resistance to leaf rust (also known as brown rust) caused by Puccinia triticina Eriks. Haustorium formation-based resistance mechanisms (i.e. pre-haustorial and post-haustorial resistance) to leaf rust have been studied and reported in various T. monococcum accessions. In the present study, the mechanism of leaf rust resistance in T. monococcum and T. boeoticum accessions was studied using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Components of resistance studied at a histological level against leaf rust pathotypes, a Mexican pathotype (TCB/TD) and a Swiss pathotype (97512-19), indicated different types of resistance mechanism operative in the two accessions. The resistance in T. monococcum ranged from pre-haustorial resistance against 97512-19 to post-haustorial resistance against TCB/TD. The response in T. boeoticum was post-haustorial with necrosis against the two pathotypes. Pre-haustorial resistance observed in T. monococcum could serve as a potential source of durable rust resistance in wheat breeding.

Pigeonpea is an important grain legume. It contributes to the improvement of soil fertility through biological nitrogen (N) fixation. However, the symbiotic efficiency of pigeonpea with native soil rhizobia has not been determined adequately. This study was designed to determine the variation in the N fixation ability of pigeonpea inoculated with the native rhizobia. Forty soil samples were collected from diverse locations across South Africa and used for inoculating pigeonpea seed. Each pigeonpea genotype was inoculated separately with each soil sample and raised in a nitrogen-depleted growth medium in the greenhouse. A split-plot experimental design was used in the study. Several N fixation variables of pigeonpea were measured. There was >40.0% difference in the number of nodules between genotypes ‘Ex-PP-MD-321’ and ‘Mpuma-B-Spot’ but the nodule dry weight between the two genotypes was >80.0%. In contrast, the heaviest dry shoots (0.4513 g), weighed 52.0% heavier than those that were observed for ‘Mpuma-B-Spot’. Pigeonpea showed differential N fixation ability with the nodules, suggesting that there was potential to select for optimum host × rhizobial isolate combinations for the process and to expand the production area of the crop.

The genus Malacomeles (Decne.) G. N. Jones (Rosaceae subtribe Pyrinae) represents several fruit shrubs, which is mainly distributed in North and Central America, from southern USA to Honduras and Guatemala, although the main distribution of this genus is in Mexico. Five species of the genus Malacomeles have been reported to exist in Mexico. Malacomeles is widely distributed in several mountainous ranges in Mexico, although it is unknown where most of the diversity of the Malacomeles genus is located in the country. The aim of this biogeographic study was to determine the areas of highest diversity of the genus Malacomeles in Mexico based on species richness and diversity indices in order to identify the best regions of Mexico to collect germplasm. The results indicated that most of the diversity of the genus Malacomeles is concentrated in northeast Mexico, mainly in the biogeographic province of Sierra Madre Oriental. In this province, the highest values on three biodiversity indices were found. Thus, this area can be considered as the priority area to collect the germplasm of Malacomeles. M. denticulata is the predominant and the most interesting species in Mexico from the viewpoint of collecting plant genetic resources; this species is mainly distributed in the provinces of Trans-Mexican Volcanic Axis, Mexican Plateau and Sierra Madre del Sur, where secondary priority areas to collect germplasm are located.

Bamboo shoots and leaves are valuable food sources for both humans and livestock. The USDA-ARS NPGS (National Plant Germplasm System) collections hold 93 bamboo species in 20 genera. Total leaf protein, amino acid composition and elemental content for these important genetic resources had never been quantified. Lack of nutrition information hinders germplasm utilization. The above-mentioned nutritional traits were evaluated from these 93 species in this study. Leaf protein content among bamboo species ranged from 8.12 to 16.33% with an average of 12.84%. This average was higher than 9.0% observed for switchgrass leaves, but considerably lower than 32.48% in cassava leaves. For 18 quantified amino acids, there was more than a twofold variation among the samples evaluated. For 12 quantified mineral elements, there was significant variability from the low end (4.2-fold, 2.27–9.52 mg/g calcium; 4.4-fold, 56.17–246.43 µg/g sodium) to the high end (61.5-fold, 17.67–1087.0 µg/g manganese; 40.8-fold, 42.0–1713.5 µg/g aluminium). Due to their variability in leaf nutritive value, bamboo species should be carefully chosen when they are used as a feedstock. The results from this study will be useful for the bamboo industry, producers and consumers.

Iron walnut, Juglans sigillata Dode, restricted to southwestern China, has its centre of distribution in Yunnan Province which has a varied climate, geography and rich plant diversity. Yunnan contains abundant J. sigillata germplasm. In this study, a provincial-scale set of walnut germplasm resources (14 populations comprising 1122 individuals) was evaluated for genetic diversity based on 20 simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci. The number of SSR alleles per locus ranged from 7 to 27, with an average of 17.55. Mean allelic richness and mean private allelic richness ranged from 3.40 to 4.62 and 0.11 to 0.36, with average of 3.93 and 0.30, respectively. Expected heterozygosity (He) varied from 0.26 to 0.78, with an average of 0.57. Polymorphism information content ranged from 0.22 to 0.79, with an average of 0.57. Genetic differentiation (FST) was 0.05, indicating that only 5% of total genetic variability was inter-populational, a finding supported by an analysis of molecular variance and STRUCTURE analysis. Relatively high gene flow (Nm = 6.70) was observed between populations. A unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic analysis classified the 14 populations into two major groups. Mantel testing uncovered a significant correlation between geographic distance and genetic distance (r = 0.33, P = 0.04). Overall, the research revealed a moderately high level of genetic diversity in the germplasm and low genetic differentiation among populations, which showed great potential for further development and exploitation of this resource.

In order to gain an understanding of the genetic basis of traits of interest to breeders, the pea varieties Brutus, Enigma and Kahuna were selected, based on measures of their phenotypic and genotypic differences, for the construction of recombinant inbred populations. Reciprocal crosses were carried out for each of the three pairs, and over 200 F2 seeds from each cross advanced to F13. Bulked F7 seeds were used to generate F8–F11 bulks, which were grown in triplicated plots within randomized field trials and used to collect phenotypic data, including seed weight and yield traits, over a number of growing seasons. Genetic maps were constructed from the F6 generation to support the analysis of qualitative and quantitative traits and have led to the identification of four major genetic loci involved in seed weight determination and at least one major locus responsible for variation in yield. Three of the seed weight loci, at least one of which has not been described previously, were associated with the marrowfat seed phenotype. For some of the loci identified, candidate genes have been identified. The F13 single seed descent lines are available as a germplasm resource for the legume and pulse crop communities.

The recombinant inbred line mapping population Opata85 × Synthetic W7984 was used to map Jeli long terminal repeat retrotransposon insertion sites in the hexaploid wheat genome. Sequence-specific amplified polymorphism technique was applied to reveal Jeli insertions. Jeli was found to provide multiple genetic markers for common wheat. Our marker system revealed A-genome Jeli insertions, and therefore can be used for targeted analysis of the A genome.

Genetic resources form the basis of the new era of global food security. The food crises in many developing countries, reflected by food riots correlated with food prices, have been termed the Silent Tsunami. Plant genetic resources are clearly essential to food security for the future. Fortunately, genetic resources are generally considered a public good and shared internationally. Wild relatives of crop species and their derivatives represent the reservoir of genetic diversity that will help to meet the food demands of nine billion people by 2050. New technologies from genomics bolster conventional plant breeding for enhancing traits to meet these food demands. Genetic diversity is the lifeblood of traditional and modern plant breeding. The dramatic increase in the number of biotech crops reveals the value of new genetic resources. Genetic resources will provide a gateway to a new era of global food security. Although 7.4 million plant accessions are stored in 1750 germplasm banks around the world, only a small portion of the accessions has been used so far to produce commercial varieties. Our challenge is to find better ways to make more efficient use of gene bank materials for meeting food demands in the future.

A blueberry (Vaccinium sp.) germplasm collection was screened for allelic variation in TERMINAL FLOWER 1 (TFL1) that could be used in breeding flowering or architecture traits. TFL1 has been found to repress the transition from vegetative to reproductive growth in diverse plant species, with mutations leading to altered flowering and form. The VcTFL1 gene sequence was determined from the draft genome sequence of diploid V. corymbosum line W8520. VcTFL1 is a member of a PEBP gene family and it could be distinguished from its family members by sequence comparison with PEBP family genes from other plants. High-resolution DNA melting analysis of 160 Vaccinium accessions detected VcTFL1 exons that differed in sequence from the W8520 control. DNA sequence analysis confirmed the presence of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and identified haplotypes of tetraploid accessions. A total of 18 SNP sites were detected in VcTFL1 coding sequences of the Vaccinium germplasm screened. A SNP causing an alanine-to-valine change in exon 4 (A159V) was determined by multiple bioinformatic tools to be deleterious to VcTFL1 function. A diploid V. corymbosum accession heterozygous for the VcTFL1 mutation was identified as a candidate for breeding novel traits for blueberry.

The large variation in multifactorial and seemingly non-adaptive kernel colour traits displayed by Native American maize landraces is an evidence of recurring selection for perceptual distinctiveness. Native American farmers selected for colour traits that allowed them to distinguish between and maintain large diversity within maize landraces for traditional uses. Multivariate statistical procedures were employed to quantify the variation and interrelationships between physical traits, C:N ratio, protein content, micro- and macronutrient concentrations with kernel colour traits measured on random kernel samples of Northern flint maize landraces grown for 2 years in a common-garden experiment. The colour traits (L*, a* and b* indicating dark–light, red–green and yellow–blue colour continuum, respectively) were digitally quantified on 590 random kernels from each of 28 accessions in 11 landraces. Accessions within landraces exhibited the largest variation for all colour traits. The variation in the L*a*b*, L*a* and L*b* combinations explained significant variances in 37, 14 and 37% of 120 landrace–trait combinations, respectively; the remaining 12% were explained by L*, a* or b*. On average, 37.5% of the variation in protein content (range 19.2–64.5%) and 36.6% of the variation in the C:N ratio (range 15.7–65.0%) were explained by the combinations of colour traits in different landraces. Slightly larger average variations in K (43.7%), S (43.0%), Fe (42.2%) and P (40.8%) were accounted for by colour traits. A hierarchical and joint clustering procedure of landraces and traits was developed to facilitate the identification of large variation and the selection of single or multiple traits based on kernel colour traits with reasonable certainty.

Andean blackberry (Rubus glaucus Benth.) is an emerging fruit crop with significant commercial potential. Despite its growing popularity, basic research about its genetic resources and breeding remains insufficient. The aim of this study was to assess the genetic diversity of Andean blackberry cultivars and related berries species from the main production areas in Ecuador. We analysed a total of 106 samples and performed DNA screening with different molecular markers: random-amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs), inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSRs) and a set of representative samples with amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). The tested RAPD primers did not reveal any differentiation among accessions identified as R. glaucus, however one ISSR primer was useful to find polymorphisms allowing the selection of 29 accessions for the analysis with AFLP markers. AFLP-M13 technology was used for screen genetic variations among these accessions and eight wild Rubus accessions. We scored 203 bands using five primer combinations; out of these 152 were informative in R. glaucus. AFLP markers clearly distinguish R. glaucus from the screened wild Rubus species, also an unexpected genetic structure was revealed among R. glaucus cultivars. This genetic differentiation and detection of admixed genotypes suggest a possible introgression of wild Rubus species in R. glaucus. Our findings are relevant for blackberry genetic breeding and use of these genetic resources.

Leaf pubescence is widespread among higher plants. In bread wheat, a relationship was found between this trait and the efficiency of photosynthetic processes and productivity. In this work, we established the chromosomal localization of the gene for leaf pubescence introgressed from Triticum timopheevii into a bread wheat line 821 and studied its expression in the genetic background of two wheat cultivars differing in genetic control and phenotypic expression of pubescence. To obtain quantitative characteristics of pubescence in cultivars and hybrid populations, the LHDetect2 program was used, which makes it possible to estimate the length and number of trichomes on a leaf fold. A genetic analysis showed the dominant inheritance of the gene. Monosomic analysis F2 was used to establish chromosome localization and investigate the expression of the gene in cultivars Saratovskaya S29 (S29) and Diamant 2 (Dm2). As a result, the gene Hltt, introgressed from T. timopheevii, was identified and localized in the distal region of the long arm of 5A chromosome for the first time. In both F2 populations, the gene reduced the density of trichomes and formed long trichomes, uncharacteristic for the two recipient cultivars S29 and Dm2. A larger number of long trichomes was formed in the genetic background of S29, which carry the bread wheat gene Hl1 and Hl3 for leaf pubescence, than in Dm2. Development of substitution and isogenic lines with the fragment of introgression carrying the gene Hltt will allow determining function and assessing the adaptive significance of the gene more precisely.

Natural products from plants are still important sources for the development of drugs, despite their recent neglect in pharmaceutical discovery programmes. The rapidly dwindling number of species endangers the availability of these natural compounds, which are characterized by the immense chemical and functional diversity ultimately responsible for their pharmaceutical activity. Although many steps in the drug discovery process have been continuously modified during recent years, a common dilemma is still unresolved, i.e. the supply crisis for hits discovered in rare wild plants due to their inaccessibility or lack of reproducibility. New technology, combining tissue culture, functional genomics and metabolomics, shows promise to overcome these problems and even to supply a greater chemical diversity of compounds.

The concept of agro-sustainability is presented and discussed. The paper shows that sustainable farming practices, sustainable development and the preservation of biological diversity require adequate valorization of local biodiversity. Special emphasis is given to neglected and underutilized crop species. The role and importance of these plants, including primitive wheat, wild anise, food legumes, several vegetables and forage legumes in southern Italy is presented. Each case is presented as an example of cultivation linked to different aspects of utilization, conservation, genetic erosion, and of their potential for sustainable agriculture.

Plant height is important for crop yield improvement. In this study, a dwarf mutant, Gmdwarf1, was screened from a γ-ray-treated soybean population. Compared with the wild type, the mutant exhibited later germination, smaller and darker green leaves, and less-elongated shoots. Genome-wide transcriptome detection through RNA-seq analysis revealed that not only gibberellin-related genes but many other genes involved in hormone biosynthetic pathways were also significantly influenced in the mutant. We presumed that Gmdwarf1 might play essential roles in the plant hormone pathways. Future functional analysis of this dwarf mutant would help us to understand the underlying mechanisms and be beneficial for improving soybean yield.