Musical criticism lies at the heart of music education. It is argued that there are five fundamental dimensions of musical criticism: control of sonorities; expressive characterisation; structural relationships; personal evaluation; historical and technical context. The first four of these – those directly concerned with response to a musical object or event – are the essential modes of criticism and these can be seen unfolding in the musical development of children. Following the publication in 1986 by Swanwick and Tillman of a musical development model, further research in Cyprus gives supportive results; showing strong agreement between judges on the use of critical criteria for assessing children's compositions and articulating the same sequential order of development. A random selection of children's compositions drawn from over 600 items collected in Cyprus is assessed by independent judges. There are correlations between assigned critical criteria and the age of the children. Thus the pattern of musical development can be seen to parallel a critical hierarchy. From these data we can also assume that, although the sequential order of development may be confirmed, the compositions of the UK children in our sample appear generally to be more advanced than those of their Cyprus peers. The quality and consistency of music education provision seems therefore to have a positive role in the development of critical powers. There are implications for music curriculum development, for assessment procedures and for further work on musical development, and on the relationship of composing to performing and of both to audience listening.

This is a report on the Music Curriculum course units in a primary teacher-training programme held at the Macarthur Institute of Higher Education, Sydney, Australia. It attempts to give an overview of the attitudes of starting students to music and their experiences of music teaching in the Primary School. These are generally negative, and the students are very hesitant about the idea of being expected to teach music when they graduate. Course content is examined along with changes in attitudes, skills and knowledge of the students.

Peer assessment is a relatively new approach, especially in music higher education where there seems to be a resistance to changes which give more control of the assessment process to student and, apparently, less to lecturers. At Kingston University peer assessment has been introduced into a number of modules on the BA (Hons) in music and also the BEd (Hons – music specialism) courses. These include: performance; music, performance and communication (a community based performance project); music and business; and composition. The latter is the main focus of this paper, although some of the observations are applicable to other curriculum areas. The main purposes of the study have been to evaluate student attitudes towards peer assessment, to identify features which have been successful, and to identify features which could be improved.

Recent efforts to increase workplace readiness in university students have largely centred on undergraduates, with comparatively few strategies or studies focusing on higher research degree candidates. In the discipline of music, a wide diversity of possible career paths combined with rapidly changing career opportunities makes workplace readiness a moving target. Drawing on qualitative and quantitative data from semi-structured interviews, dialogue forums, an online survey and pre-existing literature, this paper explores perceptions of higher degree research (HDR) music students about their work readiness, and critically examines these perceptions against graduate capabilities frameworks. It recommends ways to better prepare HDR music students for life beyond their studies, advocating in particular a more collaborative model of research education than is currently the norm. The findings may help improve the student experience and graduate outcomes among HDR students, both in music and more broadly.

This paper focuses on the establishment of a curriculum model, as part of a larger study concerning the role of Chinese music in secondary school education in Hong Kong. The study employed a two-pronged approach, consisting of (i) a questionnaire survey conducted among 209 secondary school music teachers, and (ii) interviews with 26 professionals from the cultural sector of Hong Kong. From the results a curriculum model was established which underpins a comprehensive approach to the teaching of Chinese music. This model could further be adapted to address general problems in the selection of curriculum content and teaching approaches.

All reflective music educators ponder the questions posed by this title. Over the years, they have channelled an enormous amount of energy into the improvement of musical teaching and learning in our schools. Ross (1995) argues that these efforts continue to be futile, for the basis of thought and practice is misconceived. This paper examines Ross's thesis highlighting and developing its existential component. A case study illustrates the argument for placing authentic self-expression and ‘music proper’ within the context of wider contemporary debate.

This article is an attempt to explore what we Secondary School Music Teachers should do in our music lessons. To illuminate this problem the author postulates two rôles which he believes many music teachers adopt more or less whole-heartedly: the ‘Instructor’, who passes on a body of received skills, information and perhaps values; and the ‘Enabler’, who sets up conditions in which his or her pupils may discover music.

Although both rôles can be fruitful in some areas of the music curriculum, the author considers them inadequate, and attempts to describe a new role which teachers might find more helpful. He outlines ways in which the teacher who adopts this role might operate when teaching Composition, Literature Studies, Audition, Skills and Performance (C(L)A(S)P).

This paper reveals contemporary issues of music education in post-soviet Armenia. The author analyses the state of music education and draws special attention to the music education of adult beginners, which is a new challenge for the educational system of Armenia. In particular, the author reveals new problems in the performing arts, especially piano playing by adults, which brings with it many questions about new methodical approaches.

The author details ideas with respect to the psychological aspects of adults who wish to play piano and presents results of her tests on students from the chair of Music Education, Armenian State Pedagogical University after Khachatur Abovyan. She also provides observations and a number of recommendations for even more productive work.

Much previous international research has demonstrated links between general school attainment and active engagement with music. The research reported here compared the change in examination outcomes in English and mathematics in national examinations at ages 11 and 16 of instrumentalists and non-instrumentalists. Data from 701 pupils showed statistically significant differences in examination outcomes between instrumentalists and non-instrumentalists, which was also related to the duration of learning and the instrument played. Instrumentalists had greater change scores in mathematics, but not English, although instrumentalists of lower socio-economic status showed greater change in both subjects. The implications for music education are discussed.

The popular view that ‘the gifted can look after themselves’ is considered with reference to the identification of gifted orchestral instrumentalists. Among agroup of professional orchestral musicians, a substantial number are found to have started lessons on their principal instrument not on their own initiative, but on that of their school. The absence of a ‘method’ for the identification of gifted instrumentalists is considered, and some ways whereby the music teacher may develop an environment in which more gifted instrumentalists identify themselves are suggested.

Originally, the creative music workshop involving professional players was intended to give direct support to school teachers and to enhance music in the classroom, but today's large-scale, high-profile projects mounted by orchestras and opera companies appear to be developing into a full-scale industry on their own. Their role in partnership with schools and colleges now requires clarification: a survey of education policies has revealed some confusion of aims with few bodies looking closely at objectives, outcomes and effects. Music companies could profit from the experience of museums and art galleries.

Music education at present suffers from a dilemma that few in the field seem to realise or appreciate. To put it in perhaps overly simple terms, the issue involves whether the music teacher should teach music or concepts! In this day of growing interest in cognitive psychology, few would deny any longer the involvement and relevance of concepts and conception in any form of musical functioning. But the writers of methods texts and materials, and theorists of teaching alike, often give evidence of being woefully confused about the process of conception, the nature of its ‘products’ and therefore of the precise involvement of concepts in musical functioning.

Against the background of current debate concerning the proposed national curriculum, a number of questions remain unanswered. This paper examines the issue of how, and indeed whether music education is practised from an expressivist point of view. The expressivist position, as evidenced for instance in the work of Herbert Read, Louis Arnard Reid and Suzanne Langer, is analysed in the more recent work of Robert Witkin and Malcolm Ross.

The paper continues by questioning whether there is an expressivist future in music education, discussing the work of Keith Swanwick and John Paynter alongside recent guidelines from HMI and the DES. Official utilitarian arguments are questioned and evidence of developments in Scotland and the United States are examined. The American tradition of developmental psychology in music leads to a discussion of the work of David J. Hargreaves in this country, and finally recommendations are made concerning the relationship between music and the other arts, with particular reference to curriculum structures and programmes of learning.

When we enjoy a solo musical performance, two factors in particular may contribute to our appreciation: the technical skill of the performer in playing the instrument and the individual expressive interpretation of the work. The factor which predominates will vary from piece to piece according to the musical demands. In traditional piano method the skills of playing the instrument and of creating an interpretation are normally taught together. Here the author suggests that the two factors can be separated and considers how the skills of creating an interpretation might be explored independently. A computer-based system is described which enables a person to create individual expressive performances of piano music even without being able to play the piano. Some potentially limiting factors are considered.

Although not developed specifically with musicians in mind, Alexander Technique has come to be associated with musical performers and with the problems of tension they may experience. In this article the author, a cellist and a cello teacher who has herself been helped by therapy based upon Alexander principles, acknowledges the special value that the technique has for musicians and demonstrates this by reference to the needs of string players. She goes on to show how other performers may benefit, and how F. M. Alexander's ideas can be particularly important for singers. She enlarges this view to take in a wider range of musical education and, arguing that singing has, of late, been sadly neglected in schools, illustrates the potential of the Alexander principles through a detailed account of how one child was helped to ‘find her voice’and how, in succeeding, she was able to increase her confidence in many other areas besides music.

The encouragement of aural methods should be basic to any fostering of musical experiences and understanding. This basis has been lost in European formal music education largely because of the all-pervading influence of musical literacy. Efforts to retain some importance for the aural experience through examinations have mostly been unsuccessful. If music is primarily an aural experience, then it is this that should govern the work of teachers at all times. A case is presented for both class and instrumental teachers to recognise the importance of psychomotor skills and the value of imitative methods for all pupils, enabling improvisation on all instruments. The argument draws on some examples of teaching and learning from other cultures.

Ghana, a former British colony, has, since 1987, embarked on a massive programme of educational reform. With regard to music education, there seems to be a conflict of opinions and objectives; between those of the curriculum planners on one hand, and the music teachers on the other. This paper examines recent literature on this topic, together with current debates about how music is to function at the basic level in the new system.

This study addresses the baseline assessment of pupil composing competencies at age 11+. It asks whether it might be possible for these to be evaluated by the use of a whole-class listening task. A rationale for this proposal is discussed. Results from a pilot study which administered an original audiated puzzle-task to a cohort of pupils, followed by a related composing assignment, are presented, analysed and discussed. This methodology is shown to reveal information about pupil composing competencies.

While mastery of aspects of music theory is relevant to rapid learning and understanding of a new choral part, many choirs comprise members with no formal education in music theory. Also, the language of music theory is not intuitive, with many terms having meanings different from those in common use, which can present obstacles for mature learners. The authors hypothesised that students joining an internationally recognised university choir might master aspects of music theory as a by-product of rehearsals. This was tested by having new admissions to such a choir complete a music theory test at the commencement and at the end of a year. The test evaluated the ability to name and write intervals and name notes and the duration of notes. Overall results did not reject the hypothesis. Subjects with no formal music training also showed most, and statistically significant, improvement in the questions related to intervals, which are arguably the most useful skills for choristers who do not sight-read. This appears to be a new finding: the literature shows occasional references to music theory skills, but their acquisition in a learning-by-doing style is not reported. Some insights into ways of enhancing choral performance are a by-product of the principal focus of the study.