This study examines whether pesticide risk indicators can be used to evaluate the environmental effects of pesticide applications within integrated pest management (IPM) projects. Pesticide risk indicators, commonly used in European countries, are mathematical equations that consider data inputs such as application rates, toxicity levels of a pesticide's active ingredient, meteorological data, the soil characteristics of farm fields, and other information to generate potential risk scores for pesticide applications. These potential risk scores represent the best estimate of a pesticide's impact on the surrounding environment. This project analyzed eight pesticide risk indicators, developed throughout Europe and the United States, with two years of pesticide application data from four farms using IPM. This two-year study allowed for a determination of the validity and reliability of pesticide risk indicators. The findings reveal that only three pesticide risk indicators performed consistently and gave valid results. These indicators are: the synoptic evaluation model for plant protection agents (SYNOPS) indicator from Germany, the multi-attribute toxicity factor from the United States, and the environmental impact quotient from the United States. As a result, the authors recommend these three indicators for future research and for IPM evaluative efforts that emphasize the environmental effects of pesticides.

The medium to long-term environmental performances of organic, integrated and conventional olive-growing systems in the average conditions of the south of Spain are evaluated and compared with respect to soil erosion, soil fertility, rational use of irrigation water, water contamination, atmospheric pollution and biodiversity, based on experts’ knowledge. The aim of the research was to test the common implicit assumption of environmental superiority of the two alternative farming systems over the conventional system. For this purpose, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), a widely used multi-criteria decision-making tool, has been implemented. AHP enables us to deal with complex decision-making problems with multiple criteria, stakeholders and decision-makers, high uncertainty and risk, such as in the case of multi-criteria environmental comparison of alternative farming systems. Twenty experts in olive production, clustered into three groups according to their professional field of interest, were involved in the analysis. The utilization of experts' knowledge is justified when information relevant for urgent decision-making is not available, is partial or is time and resource demanding, and a holistic perspective is required. Indexes and procedures are proposed for group decision-making, to detect variation in expert opinions and differences between alternative systems' performances. Despite bias in the judgments of the groups of experts in some topics, results confirm the holistic environmental superiority of organic and integrated alternatives over the conventional olive system in Andalusia in the medium to long-term. The results represent a scientific base to justify and endorse institutional support regarding the promotion and implementation of organic and integrated olive-growing systems in the region, which are likely to result in greater social welfare.

Industrial principles of specialization, simplification and concentration began to be applied to agriculture after the Second World War with positive production results. But it is now widely recognized that this agriculture and food system faces daunting challenges in the decades ahead, including increased human population growth, natural resource depletion, ecological degradation, climate change and escalating energy costs. These challenges have refocused the attention of agriculturalists and food scientists on the question of how we can continue to feed the human species. But these challenges also provide opportunities to rethink and redesign our food system. Agriculturalists are recognizing that resilience is at least as important to food security as maximum production, and consumer concerns provide us with unprecedented opportunities for farmers and consumers to come together as ‘food citizens’ to determine appropriate changes in our food system. To that end it is important to examine the various production systems and infrastructures in an effort to select the most viable options for long-term sustainability.

Weeds are a major challenge for organic farmers, yet we know little about the factors influencing organic farmers’ weed management decisions. We hypothesized that farmers and scientist ‘experts’ differ in fundamental areas of knowledge and perceptions regarding weeds and weed management. Moreover, these differences prevent effective communication, outreach programming and research prioritization. An expert mental model, constructed primarily from interviews with research scientists and extension professionals, revealed expert emphasis on knowledge of ecological weed management as crucial for successfully implementing such strategies. We interviewed 23 organic farmers in northern New England, yielding an aggregate farmer mental model to compare with the expert model. Farmers demonstrated knowledge of the major concepts discussed by experts, but differed in emphasis. Farmers placed less emphasis on ecological complexity than experts. One-third of farmers interviewed discussed the potential role of weeds as indicators of soil nutrient status, a concept of which experts were skeptical. Farmer beliefs about the weed seedbank highlighted potential misconceptions regarding seed persistence, with one-fourth of farmers focusing on the concept that seeds can live for an exceptionally long time in the soil, while experts focused on the concept of the seed half-life. Farmers emphasized the role of experience, both their own and that of other farmers, rather than knowledge derived from scientific research. Farmers considered yield and the cost of time and labor as equally at risk because of weeds, whereas experts predominantly discussed yield loss. During discussions of management, both farmers and experts most emphasized risks associated with cultivation and benefits associated with cover cropping. These results have prompted us, first, to develop new educational materials focused on weed seed longevity and management of the weed seedbank, and, second, to conduct regional focus groups with farmers who prioritize fertility management in their efforts to control weeds, especially manipulations of soil calcium and magnesium.

Canadian Western Hard Red Spring (CWRS) wheat is recognized as premium quality wheat, ideal for breadmaking due to its superior milling qualities, baking characteristics and protein content. Organic wheat production is becoming more prevalent in Canada, due to increasing consumer demand for organic wheat products. Differences may exist in the baking and milling quality of wheat grown under conventional and organic management, a result of the dissimilarity between organic and conventional soil and crop management practices. Five CWRS cultivars released from 1885 to 1997 were grown under conventional and organic management and were assessed for their breadmaking potential. Several traits were investigated, including test weight, protein content, flour yield, kernel hardness and several mixograph parameters. Test weight was higher under conventional management, while no differences in protein content were observed between organic and conventionally grown wheat. Higher sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation (SDSS) volume, a reflection of gluten strength, was observed under conventional management, while there was a trend towards higher dough strength under organic management. Cultivars differed in grain protein, flour yield, kernel hardness and mixograph parameters, with Park and McKenzie superior to the others, particularly Red Fife, a much older cultivar. Management×cultivar interaction effects suggest that cultivars exhibit somewhat different baking characteristics when grown in the two management systems. There was no evidence that older cultivars (developed prior to the widespread use of pesticides and fertilizers) are better suited, in terms of breadmaking quality, for organic production.

Organic agriculture aims to build soil quality and provide long-term benefits to people and the environment; however, organic practices may reduce crop yields. This long-term study near Mead, NE was conducted to determine differences in soil fertility and crop yields among conventional and organic cropping systems between 1996 and 2007. The conventional system (CR) consisted of corn (Zea mays L.) or sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench)–soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.)–sorghum or corn–soybean, whereas the diversified conventional system (DIR) consisted of corn or sorghum–sorghum or corn–soybean–winter wheat (wheat, Triticum aestivum L.). The animal manure-based organic system (OAM) consisted of soybean–corn or sorghum–soybean–wheat, while the forage-based organic system (OFG) consisted of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)–alfalfa–corn or sorghum–wheat. Averaged across sampling years, soil organic matter content (OMC), P, pH, Ca, K, Mg and Zn in the top 15 cm of soil were greatest in the OAM system. However, by 2008 OMC was not different between the two organic systems despite almost two times greater carbon inputs in the OAM system. Corn, sorghum and soybean average annual yields were greatest in either of the two conventional systems (7.65, 6.36 and 2.60 Mg ha−1, respectively), whereas wheat yields were greatest in the OAM system (3.07 Mg ha−1). Relative to the mean of the conventional systems, corn yields were reduced by 13 and 33% in the OAM and OFG systems, respectively. Similarly, sorghum yields in the OAM and OFG systems were reduced by 16 and 27%, respectively. Soybean yields were 20% greater in the conventional systems compared with the OAM system. However, wheat yields were 10% greater in the OAM system compared with the conventional DIR system and 23% greater than yield in the OFG system. Alfalfa in the OFG system yielded an average of 7.41 Mg ha−1 annually. Competitive yields of organic wheat and alfalfa along with the soil fertility benefits associated with animal manure and perennial forage suggest that aspects of the two organic systems be combined to maximize the productivity and sustainability of organic cropping systems.

Organic food is the development trend of food in the world today. China's green food is a kind of food with pollution-free, safety, high-quality and nutritious properties, similar to organic food in the international market. The Chinese government has paid attention to the sustainable development of agro-ecosystems under the pressures of population growth and agricultural expansion since the 1980s and began to develop a green food industry in 1990. After the development of about two decades, now the Chinese green food industry has already entered a fast-growth stage. It has reached a considerable scale and is expanding rapidly. The share of green food in the global market is continuously increasing and a two-tier certification system has been established. However, green food's further development is still facing some difficulties and problems. This paper mainly analyzes those problems and discusses reasonable solutions. Specifically, this paper first gives a detailed introduction to green food and the green food industry in China, and then analyzes the major problems impeding the further development of green food industry, such as unreasonable product structure and enterprise structure, incomplete market system and backward certification system. Finally, suggestions on product structure, enterprise structure, publicity, market, certification system and governmental policies are put forward.

This paper explores hidden problems amid the impressive expansion of farmers' markets in Oregon and throughout the United States. Although markets are growing in number, a surprisingly large number of them fail. A challenge for many markets is inadequate revenue to support market operations such as paying for the management personnel to perform functions necessary to grow and sustain markets. Smaller markets may enter a downward spiral in which they cannot attract additional customers because they do not have sufficient vendors but cannot attract additional vendors because they do not have sufficient customers. The analysis identifies five intertwined factors associated with markets that fail: small size, a high need for products, low administrative revenue, a volunteer or low paid manager and high manager turnover. The paper also examines the more general issue of why some markets struggle by exploring a correlation between new markets and inexperienced managers, and effort thresholds for volunteer managers. Recommendations to assist markets toward success include better planning, manager and board of director training and community financial support. The findings of this study have broad application.

Organic crop production systems are increasingly being adopted by producers in the northern Great Plains. This study evaluated the expected net returns and risk of organic crop rotations, compared to conventional rotations. Field plot data of organic and conventional crop rotations were used to determine the net returns of the systems, using four different levels of premiums for organic produce. The risk of returns was evaluated using estimated cumulative density functions and stochastic dominance. The most profitable organic rotation required high price premiums to dominate the most profitable conventional rotation. However, the most profitable organic rotation dominated some conventional rotations that are commonly used in the northern Great Plains. The organic rotations had slightly higher risk, but the relative risk of rotations had little impact on the optimal rotation.

The present study was conducted in Magnesia Prefecture, central Greece, during the period May–June 2007. It aimed at the comparison between conventional and certified organic olive groves with regard to olive and olive oil production, diversity of plants (herbaceous and woody) and diversity and abundance of avifauna. Correlations between variables within herbaceous plants (linear regression) and woody plants (Principal Component Analysis), and the role of integration time of olive groves to the organic system were investigated. Also, finding easily measurable parameters indicating high bird diversity levels within organic and conventional management systems was a main target of the study. According to our findings, neither edible olive yield nor olive oil yield showed significant differences between conventional and certified organic olive groves. There is an increasing trend for alpha and beta diversity of herbaceous plant species, woody plant beta diversity, density and cover of woody plants, and density of breeding birds in certified organic olive groves (10 years) in comparison with conventional ones. The effect of time since the adoption of organic procedures is very important and produces benefits for the biodiversity. In the total olive groves 15 insectivorous, six granivorous and three insectivorous/granivorous birds species were recorded. Nine bird species distinguished by Ward's hierarchical clustering were identified as typical (indicator value, IndVal>50%) of specific farming systems. Among them, the Eurasian jay, associated with the 10-year certified organic olive groves, and the common cuckoo, Orphean warbler and Red-backed shrike, associated with the 6-year certified organic olive groves, should be regarded as characteristic species (IndVal>70%). Conclusively, organic farming favors some aspects of diversity of herbaceous and woody plants of olive grove ecosystems. On the contrary, similar effects on breeding bird diversity and density were not clearly recorded. However, breeding bird density proved a good indicator of their richness.

The market for certified organic potatoes in Canada is growing rapidly, but the productivity and dynamics of soil N under commercial organic potato systems remain largely unknown. This study examined, at two sites in Atlantic Canada (Winslow, PEI, and Brookside, NS), the impacts of organic amendments on Shepody potato yield, quality and soil mineral nitrogen dynamics under organic management. Treatments included a commercial hog manure–sawdust compost (CP) and pelletized poultry manure (NW) applied at 300 and 600 kg total N ha−1, plus an un-amended control (CT). Wireworm damage reduced plant stands at Brookside in 2003 and those results are not presented. Relatively high tuber yields (~30 Mg ha−1) and crop N uptake (112 kg N ha−1) were achieved for un-amended soil in those site-years (Winslow 2003 and 2004) when soil moisture was non-limiting. Compost resulted in higher total yields than CT in one of three site-years. Apparent recovery of N from CP was negligible; therefore CP yield benefits were attributed to factors other than N availability. At Winslow, NW300, but not NW600, significantly increased total and marketable yields by an average of 5.8 and 7.0 Mg ha−1. Plant available N averaged 39 and 33% for NW300 and NW600, respectively. Soil (0–30 cm) NO3−-N at harvest was low (<25 kg N ha−1) for CT and CP, but increased substantially both in season and at harvest (61–141 kg N ha−1) when NW was applied. Most leaching losses of NO3−-N occur between seasons and excessive levels of residual soil NO3-N at harvest, as obtained for NW600, must be avoided. Given current premiums for certified organic potatoes, improving yields through application of amendments supplying moderate rates of N or organic matter appears warranted.

Producers in the semi-arid Dark Brown Chernozemic (Typic Boroll) soil zone of the Canadian Prairie are contemplating changes to land-use practices, moving away from conventional high-input production systems that specialize in one or two annual grain crops to more diversified and extended cropping systems that use reduced-input and organic management practices. This study examined the economic merits of nine cropping systems, consisting of a factorial combination of three input management methods and three levels of cropping diversity. It was conducted over the 1996–2007 period on a loam soil at Scott, Saskatchewan. The input treatments were: (1) high input (HIGH), which used conventional tillage and full recommended rates of fertilizers and pesticides ‘as required’; (2) reduced input (RED), which used conservation tillage and integrated weed and nutrient management practices in an effort to lower requirements for fuel, fertilizers and pesticides; and (3) organic input (ORG), which used tillage, non-chemical pest control, higher seeding rates, delayed seeding and legume crops to replenish soil nutrients. The crop diversity treatments included: (1) a fallow-based rotation with low crop diversity (LOW); (2) a diversified annual rotation of cereal, oilseed and pulse grains (DAG); and (3) a diversified rotation using annual grains and perennial forages (DAP). All crop rotations were 6 years in length. At the 2007 input costs and prices, average net returns and 12-year net present values were higher for organic than for non-organic treatments, with the ORG input/LOW crop diversity system being the most profitable (net returns=$234 ha−1 yr−1 and net present value=$1953 ha−1). Net returns averaged about 10% less for ORG/DAG compared to the most profitable system, and about 22% less for HIGH/DAG and RED/DAG (the best non-organic systems). The DAP treatments that included forage were not economically competitive with the other treatments, often producing economic losses. The relative profitability of the organic treatments was highly dependent on the existence of organic price premiums. When price premiums for organic crops were reduced to less than 70% of the 2007 levels, the organic treatments were less profitable than the comparable non-organic treatments. The organic treatments also experienced significantly lower (and often negative) net returns compared to the non-organic treatments during completion of the 3-year organic certification period. We estimated that it required 5–7 years after completion of certification for the organic treatments to break even with the comparable non-organic treatments. Thereafter the organic treatments produced consistently higher net earnings. Production costs averaged 16% lower with ORG management compared to the HIGH-input treatments, but we found little difference in total costs between the respective HIGH- and RED-input treatments. The organic treatments also displayed lower income variability than the non-organic treatments, with the ORG/LOW system being preferred by risk-averse producers, who do not subscribe to all-risk crop insurance, and with the ORG/LOW and ORG/DAG systems preferred by low and medium risk-averse producers when having the added financial protection from the Canada/Saskatchewan all-risk crop insurance program.

Modern agriculture has done an excellent job producing food, feed and fiber for the world's growing population, but there are concerns regarding its continued ability to do so, especially with the world's limited resources. To adapt to these challenges, future agricultural systems will need to be diverse, complex and integrated. Integrated agricultural systems have many of these properties, but how they are shaped by the environment and how they shape the environment is still unclear. In this paper, we used commonly available county-level data and literature review to answer two basic questions. First, are there environmental limitations to the adoption of integrated agricultural systems? Second, do integrated agricultural systems have a lower environmental impact than more specialized systems? We focused on the Great Plains to answer these questions. Because of a lack of farm-level data, we used county-level surrogate indicators. The indicators selected were percent land base in pasture and crop diversity along a precipitation gradient in North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas. Evaluated over the four-state region, neither indicator had a strong relationship with precipitation. In the Dakotas, both percent pasture land and crop diversity suggested greater potential for agricultural integration at the mid-point of the precipitation gradient, but there was no clear trend for Kansas and Nebraska. Integrated agricultural systems have potential to reduce the impact of agriculture on the environment despite concerns with nutrient management. Despite advantages, current adoption of integrated agricultural systems appears to be limited. Future integrated agricultural systems need to work with environmental limitations rather than overcoming them and be capable of enhancing environmental quality.

While weed management is consistently a top priority among farmers, there is also growing concern for the conservation of biodiversity. Maintaining diverse weed communities below bioeconomic thresholds may provide ecosystem services for the crop and the surrounding ecosystem. This study was conducted to determine if weed diversity, density and biomass differ within and among organic and conventional crop rotations. In 2007 and 2008, we sampled weed communities in four long-term crop rotations near Mead, Nebraska using seedbank analyses (elutriation and greenhouse emergence) and above-ground biomass sampling. Two conventional crop rotations consisted of a corn (Zea mays) or sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)–soybean (Glycine max)–sorghum or corn–soybean sequence and a diversified corn or sorghum–sorghum or corn–soybean–wheat (Triticum aestivum) sequence. Two organic rotations consisted of an animal manure-based soybean–corn or sorghum–soybean–wheat sequence and a green manure-based alfalfa (Medicago sativa)–alfalfa–corn or sorghum–wheat sequence. Species diversity of the weed seedbank and the above-ground weed community, as determined by the Shannon diversity index, were greatest in the organic green manure rotation. Averaged across all sampling methods and years, the weed diversity index of the organic green manure rotation was 1.07, followed by the organic animal manure (0.78), diversified conventional (0.76) and conventional (0.66) rotations. The broadleaf weed seedbank density in the tillage layer of the organic animal manure rotation was 1.4×, 3.1× and 5.1× greater than the organic green manure, diversified conventional and conventional rotations, respectively. The grass weed seedbank density in the tillage layer of the organic green manure rotation was 2.0×, 6.1× and 6.4× greater than the organic animal manure, diversified conventional and conventional rotations, respectively. The above-ground weed biomass was generally greatest in the organic rotations. The broadleaf weed biomass in sorghum and wheat did not differ between organic and conventional rotations (CRs), but grass weed biomass was greater in organic compared to CRs for all crops. The above-ground weed biomass did not differ within CRs, and within organic rotations the grass weed biomass was generally greatest in the organic green manure rotation. The weed seedbank and above-ground weed communities that have accumulated in these rotations throughout the experiment suggest a need for greater management in long-term organic rotations that primarily include annual crops. However, results suggest that including a perennial forage crop in organic rotations may reduce broadleaf weed seedbank populations and increase weed diversity.

Cover crops are widely used to increase the quantity of organic carbon (C) returned to the soil between cash crops. Roots play an important role in increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) levels, but the root traits that impact SOC likely vary widely among cover crop species and this variation has yet to be characterized. Recently, cover crop mixtures have expanded in popularity as a way to increase the diversity of cover crop benefits. We tested the quantity, quality and spatial distribution of roots in three monocultures and one mixture to increase our understanding of root trait variation among species, and how that variation impacts mixture design. Root cores were taken from in-row and between-row locations to a depth of 40 cm from cover crops planted after winter wheat during the 2016–2017 growing season. These samples were taken from a larger maize–soybean–winter wheat organic grain rotation experiment (2012–2018) located in central Pennsylvania, USA. Cover crop treatments included monocultures of triticale (X Triticosecale Wittmack cv. ‘Trical 815’), canola (Brassica napus L. cv. ‘Wichita’), crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L. cv. ‘Dixie’) and a five species mixture dominated by those three species. Additionally, cumulative carbon (C) inputs were assessed for the entire rotation to determine cover crop and cash crop root C contributions. Root biomass C vertical and horizontal distribution, root-to-shoot (R:S) ratio, and root carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio differed among cover crop treatments. Triticale produced more root biomass in the between-row space at all depth intervals compared to other cover crop treatments. The five species mixture had more total 0–5 cm and between-row 0–5 cm root biomass than crimson clover in spring 2017. Cover crop and cash crop roots increased cumulative C estimates by between 37% (crimson clover) and 46% (triticale) compared to shoot C alone. Cover crop root trait information can inform the belowground benefits from combining different species into cover crop mixtures. Crimson clover produced less root biomass, surface root biomass and between-row root biomass than other cover crop treatments. Therefore, combining crimson clover with grass and certain brassica species can improve total root biomass production, and root distribution compared to crimson clover monocultures, whereas reducing the C:N ratio of roots compared to grass species monocultures. The five species mixture led to greater cumulative carbon inputs compared to monoculture treatments, which was due to greater cover crop biomass C and its influence on the following corn crop's biomass C.

A survey was developed and distributed to the Massachusetts cranberry grower community in 1999 to identify biological, educational, social and political barriers to the adoption of available integrated pest management (IPM) practices. The response rate for the 450 growers who received the survey was 54%. Approximately 80% of respondents claimed to practice IPM frequently and 16% identified themselves as occasional practitioners. Most growers practiced IPM because they agreed with IPM philosophy (80%) and believed it had environmental benefits (73%). Ninety-two percent agreed that more IPM-related research and education programs would encourage them to adopt practices they are not currently using. A significant percentage of respondents used multiple IPM component practices, with practices involving monitoring and detection of pests along with judicious use of pesticides being most common. Factor analysis was used to condense 104 potential responses to 22 factors, which were then used as predictors with six demographic variables (IPM adoption, education level, age, experience, farm size and work status). Demographic factors influenced a grower's tendency to incorporate IPM into routine farm activities. Full-time, highly experienced growers in charge of large operations tended frequently to use more IPM practices than less experienced growers who worked part-time and managed smaller farms. A large proportion of respondents agreed that IPM can reduce pesticide residues in food (92%) and the environment (96%), and can help to preserve beneficial insects (96%). Although many growers held the perception that IPM can pose measurable economic risk (and subsequently act as a barrier to adoption), growers appeared to feel less strongly about the economic benefits than potential environmental ones.

Continuous conventional tillage coupled with unsystematic cereal/legume rotations has promoted low crop productivity on smallholder farms. A multi-locational study was established in three agro-ecoregions (AEs) of Zimbabwe. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of four tillage systems (conventional plowing, planting basins, rip-line and animal traction direct seeding systems) on maize (Zea mays L.), cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp] and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] yields, and evaluate the economic performance of the conservation agriculture (CA) systems relative to conventional plowing. Each farmer was a replicate of the trial over the three cropping seasons. In the high (750–1000 mm per annum) and low (450–650 mm) rainfall AEs, conventional practice and CA systems gave similar maize grain yield. Under medium rainfall conditions (500–800 mm) planting basins, rip-line and direct seeding systems gave 547, 548 and 1690 kg ha−1 more maize yield than the conventional practice. In the high and low rainfall AEs, conventional practice and planting basins had the lowest maize production risk. Cowpea yield was 35 and 45% higher in the rip-line and direct seeding than conventional practice. Soybean yield was higher in rip-line (36%) and direct seeding (51%) systems than conventional practice. Direct seeding system gave the highest net benefits in all AEs. A combination of long-term biophysical and socio-economic assessments of the different cropping systems tested in our study is critical in order to fully understand their performance under different AEs of Zimbabwe.

Like many other oceanic islands around the globe, environmental conditions, social circumstances and forces of globalization combine to challenge the sustainability of the Galapagos Archipelago of Ecuador. This paper describes a food-supply system in Galapagos that is mainly controlled by population growth, weak local agriculture, imports from mainland Ecuador and the influence of a growing tourism industry. We use system dynamics (SD) as a modeling technique in this paper to identify the main driving forces operating on the Galapagos food system to create a series of future scenarios and to examine the subsequent implications across the supply system structures. We model the supply side of the food system using secondary data collected from governmental and non-governmental sources. We find that the consumption profile of the local inhabitants of the Galapagos is on average higher than consumption in the Ecuadorian mainland. This fact, plus rapid growth of the local population fueled by the tourism industry, has created a decrease in per capita local food production and an increase on food import dependence that now, challenges the sustainability of the archipelago. Imports are the largest source of food in the archipelago. Approximately 75% of the agricultural food supply was transported from the mainland in 2017. Our model projects that this fraction will increase to 95% by 2037 with no changes in food policy. Moreover, any plan to increase tourism arrivals must be accompanied by a plan to address the subsistence needs of the new population that the tourism industry attracts. Policies to promote local agricultural growth should be central to the development strategy implemented in the Galapagos.

The health of the soil, recognized by its active role in the linked processes of decomposition and nutrient supply, is considered as the foundation of agriculture by the organic farming movement. Nutrient management in organically managed soils is fundamentally different from that of conventional agricultural systems. Crop rotations are designed with regard to maintenance of fertility with a focus on nutrient recycling. Where nutrients are added to the system, inputs are in organic and/or non-synthetic fertilizer sources that are mostly slow release in nature. Hence a greater reliance is placed on soil chemical and biological processes to release nutrients in plant-available forms. In this respect, nutrient availability in organically farmed soils is more dependent upon soil processes than is the case in conventional agriculture. The development and use of biological indicators of soil quality may therefore be more important in organic (and other low input) farming systems. The aim of this paper is to evaluate current evidence for the impact of organic farming systems on soil biological quality and consider the identification of appropriate biological indicators for use by organic farmers and their advisors. Organic farming systems are generally associated with increased biological activity and increased below-ground biodiversity. The main impacts on biological fertility do not result from the systems per se but are related to the amount and quality of the soil organic matter pool and disruptions of soil habitat via tillage. Even within the constraints of organic farming practices it is possible for farmers to make changes to management practices which will tend to improve soil biological quality. It is, however, by no means clear that distinct indicators of soil biological quality are needed for organic farming systems. It is important not only to identify the most appropriate indicators but also to ensure that farmers and land managers can understand and relate to them to support on-farm management decisions.

Farms producing similar products have become increasingly concentrated geographically over the past century in the United States (US). Due to the concentration of food production, a disruption in key production areas may reduce the availability of certain foods nationwide. For example, climate change poses such a threat, with projections of altered precipitation patterns, increased temperature and pest outbreaks, which may result in reduced crop yields and geographic shifts in crop adaptation. Analyses of the degree to which US regions can satisfy the food needs of their resident populations—a concept we refer to as regional self-reliance (RSR)—are therefore warranted. We focus on the Northeast region because of its high population density and declining agricultural landbase. Our objectives are to: (1) determine how agricultural land is used in the Northeast region; (2) determine the variety and amount of foods produced; and (3) analyze the relationship between food consumption and agricultural output. Annual (2001–2010) data on land area, yield and output of all crops and major livestock categories, as well as seafood landings, were catalogued. National annual (2001–2009) data on food availability were used as a proxy for estimates of food consumption, and these data were downscaled to a regional level and compared with regional production data in order to estimate RSR. In the Northeast region, approximately 65% of land in farms contributed directly to the food supply from 2001 to 2010, although this varied significantly across states. Just over one-half of all land in farms in the region was devoted to the production of livestock feed. The region produced >100 food crops annually from 2001 to 2009, and vegetables represented the majority of food crop production by weight. Chicken accounted for the largest weight of meat products produced. Compared to the Northeast region's share (~6%) of total land in farms in the nation, it accounted for disproportionately higher amounts of the national production of dairy (16%), eggs (13%), chicken (9%), lamb (7%) and vegetables (7%). However, the region accounted for ~22% of the national population and therefore produced a disproportionately low share of food on a per capita basis. RSR for plant-based foods was lowest for pulses (7%) and highest for vegetables (26%). There are four specific factors in the RSR in our analysis, each of which could result in substantial shifts (upward or downward) of the RSR in the future: land used for agriculture, crop (or animal) productivity, population and dietary preferences.