Soil erosion due to annual cropping on highly erodible farmland is a major ecological concern in the wheat growing regions of Washington State. In response to requests from farmers, the winter wheat breeding program at Washington State University has been developing perennial wheat selected from crosses between wild wheatgrass species and commonly grown annual wheat cultivars. In 2005/06, we conducted field trials of the most promising perennial wheat breeding lines derived from interspecific crosses between tall wheatgrass (Thinopyrum elongatum) and bread wheat (Triticum aestivum). Thirty-one perennial breeding lines and two annual winter wheat cultivars were evaluated for nutritional value in the form of grain mineral concentration, multiple baking and milling quality traits, and ease of grain threshability. The objective of this study was to identify the strengths and weaknesses of these post-harvest traits in the perennial wheat lines derived from these interspecific crosses. Mineral nutrient concentrations in the perennial lines were 44, 40, 24, 23, 32, 30 and 33% higher than the annual control cultivars for calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus and zinc, respectively. The annual cultivars had a higher grain mineral content per unit area of land than the perennial lines, due primarily to the higher grain yields of the annual cultivars. Compared to the annual wheat cultivars, the perennial lines produced grain with smaller seed size, lower test weight and reduced flour yield, mix time and loaf volume. Protein content was 3.5–4.5% higher in the perennial lines than in the annual cultivars. The threshability index (TI) ranged from 0.63 to 0.89 in the perennials (μ=0.75); significantly lower than the mean TI of the annual cultivars (μ=0.97). The significant genotype×location interaction found for TI suggests that the variation in annual precipitation positively influenced some perennial lines to express greater threshability. In addition to transferring traits important to the perennial growth habit in wheat, the wild wheatgrass species also introduced beneficial characteristics (i.e. increased protein and mineral concentration) and deleterious traits (poor threshing grain and inferior baking qualities). This research gives researchers a platform from which to direct further research and selection in the development of perennial wheat.

Agri-food globalization is having a serious adverse impact on small- and medium-sized family farms in the province of Málaga (southern Spain), 43% of which have disappeared over the last 10 years. Short food supply chains (SFSCs) are emerging as a potential option for this type of farm, but as a strategy it is apparently not being implemented strongly enough over the region as a whole. The current case study sought to explore the initiatives carried out by local producers to date in implementing SFSCs throughout the province and to examine, from the standpoint of the production sector, the constraints hindering its development and the strategies currently being adopted with a view to addressing them. The analyses carried out under local producers perspective shows us that although SFSCs are interesting for family farms, in terms of prices, economic profit and social recognition, the abilities and capacities these channels require to producers, jointly with technical, flexibility and time demands, make these channels to be not that successful and attractive. Small producers interested in SFSCs must be aware of the special importance of social linkages and the need to take care of them; as well as of the need of establishing synergies and cooperation with other producers and stakeholders, in order to facilitate the tasks associated and that not every food product suit SFSCs.

Current agricultural systems are the result of decoupling crop/livestock enterprises for short-term economic gain at the expense of long-term sustainability. Objectives of our research were to determine the influences of winter grazing dry gestating beef cows on no-till forage and grain production, water-use efficiency, and protein and phosphorus (P) production for an oat/pea–triticale/sweet clover–corn 3-year cropping system. Oat/pea and triticale crops were harvested for grain, with the straw and chaff left in swaths after harvest for winter grazing. Drilled corn for forage was swathed in late September. Cropping system treatments were: (1) straw and corn chopped and left in place (IP); (2) straw and corn baled and removed without livestock (R); and (3) straw and corn swath grazed by livestock (L). The first winter for grazing dry, bred cows was in 1999–2000; therefore, no treatment differences occurred for the 1999 crop. In 2000, oat/pea and triticale grain and straw production for the IP treatment was about half of the production for the R treatment, because of low oat/pea and triticale plant stands on the IP treatment. Averaged over all years, corn was about 1.5 times more efficient in using water for dry matter production when compared to oat/pea or triticale. Generally, protein and P production, on a unit area basis, were highest for corn and lowest for triticale. Averaged over 4 years, about half of the nitrogen used for protein production was derived from sources other than applied commercial fertilizer. Data suggest that more than 4 years of research are needed to understand cropping system and animal interactions on forage and grain production in integrated crop/livestock systems, with trends in year four suggesting that livestock may enhance forage and grain production.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can increase plant nutrient uptake and chemical defense production, both of which can improve plants’ ability to resist insect herbivory. Cover crops—non-commercial species planted in between cash crops in a crop rotation—can naturally alter both soil nutrients and AMF. We tested whether different cover crop species alter AMF colonization, plant nutrient status and plant–insect interactions in a subsequent maize crop. Cover crop species were either non-mycorrhizal, non-leguminous (canola, forage radish), mycorrhizal non-leguminous (cereal rye, oats), mycorrhizal leguminous (clover, pea) or absent (fallow). We measured the cascading consequences of cover crop treatment on maize root AMF colonization, maize growth and performance of an herbivorous insect (European corn borer) feeding on the maize. Maize AMF colonization was greater in plots previously planted with mycorrhizal (rye, oats) than non-mycorrhizal (canola, radish) cover crops or no cover crop (fallow). AMF colonization was linked to increased plant phosphorous and nitrogen, and maize growth increased with low plant N:P. Induced jasmonic acid pathway plant defenses increased with increasing maize growth and AMF colonization. European corn borer survivorship decreased with lower plant N:P, and insect development rate decreased with increased induced plant defenses. Our data describe a cascade in which cover crop species selection can increase or decrease mycorrhizal colonization of subsequent maize crop roots, which in turn impacts phosphorus uptake and may affect herbivory resistance in the maize. These results suggest that farmers could select cover crop species to manage nutrient uptake and pest resistance, in order to amend or limit fertilizer and pesticide use.

Agricultural industrialization, Green Revolution technologies, environmental change and civil conflicts have all been cited as contributing to the erosion of crop biodiversity. An additional factor is change in the characteristics of markets, including distance to market. Proponents of sustainable agriculture claim that one benefit of local food systems is the preservation of crop biodiversity. This paper explores that claim, examining Ohio orchardists' understanding and valuation of apple varieties and relating these to the preservation of biodiversity. Growers provided lists of apple varieties and then performed pilesorts on them. Analysis using multidimensional scaling reveals the underlying dimensions growers use to distinguish those cultivars. Salient characteristics are taste, use and market focus. Demands of the conventional commercial market with regards to transportation, appearance and storage exclude the old varieties. On the other hand, there is a strong congruence between sales in local markets and production of old varieties. Local markets, such as roadside stands and ‘pick-your-own’ operations, play an important role in the preservation of heirloom varieties of apples.

Cotton is an important source of income for smallholder farmers in India, usually grown very intensively. To counteract negative impacts of cotton cultivation in India, such as environmental degradation and financial dependency due to high input costs, organic cotton cultivation is being promoted by non-governmental organizations in the country. This study examines how the conversion to organic cotton cultivation influences the livelihood of smallholder farmers in rural India. Interviews with organic farmers were conducted in Odisha, India, complemented by expert interviews and observations in the field. Results show that farmers profit from organic agriculture, mainly due to soil improvements, through reduced exposure to toxic chemicals and lower input costs, which in turn reduces dependency on money lenders. Organic agriculture enables smallholder farmers in the study region to improve their livelihood by providing access to training and by organizing in groups. Important social impacts identified in this study were capacity building and strengthened communities, through training and institution building. However, a higher workload, due to the higher work intensity of organic farming practices, was also observed, with this impacting women more than men. Environmental conditions and gender aspects still remain challenging.

Integrated crop–livestock systems have been purported to have numerous agronomic and environmental benefits, yet information documenting their long-term impact on the soil resource is lacking. This study sought to quantify the effects of an integrated crop–livestock system on near-surface soil properties in central North Dakota, USA. Soil bulk density, electrical conductivity, soil pH, extractable N and P, potentially mineralizable N, soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) were measured 3, 6 and 9 years after treatment establishment to evaluate the effects of residue management (Grazed, Hayed and Control), the frequency of hoof traffic (High traffic, Low traffic and No traffic), season (Fall and Spring) and production system (integrated annual cropping versus perennial grass) on near-surface soil quality. Values for soil properties were incorporated into a soil quality index (SQI) using the Soil Management Assessment Framework to assess overall treatment effects on soil condition. Residue management and frequency of hoof traffic did not affect near-surface soil properties throughout the evaluation period. Aggregated SQI values did not differ between production systems 9 years after treatment establishment (integrated annual cropping=0.91, perennial grass=0.93; P=0.57), implying a near-identical capacity of each system to perform critical soil functions. Results from the study suggest that with careful management, agricultural producers can convert perennial grass pastures to winter-grazed annual cropping systems without adversely affecting near-surface soil quality. However, caution should be exercised in applying results to other regions or management systems. The consistent freeze/thaw and wet/dry cycles typical of the northern Great Plains, coupled with the use of no-till management, modest fertilizer application rates and winter grazing likely played an important role in the outcome of the results.

There are many economic, social and environmental reasons to reduce the occurrence of food that is wasted. As communities consider options for managing their food waste streams, an understanding of the volume, composition and variability of these streams is needed to inform the decision-making process and potentially justify the capital investments needed for separation and treatment operations. This more detailed inventory also allows for the estimation of embodied resources in food that is wasted, demonstrated herein for greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs). Pre- and post-consumer food waste was collected from four all-you-care-to-eat Campus Dining Services (CDS) facilities at the University of Missouri, Columbia over 3 months in 2014. During the study period approximately 246.3 metric tons (t) of food reached the retail level at the four facilities. 232.4 t of this food was served and 13.9 t of it (10.1 t of edible and 3.8 t of inedible), was lost as pre-consumer waste. Over the same time period, an estimated 26.4 t of post-consumer food waste was generated at these facilities, 21.2 t of the waste edible and 5.3 t of it inedible. Overall, 5.6% of food reaching the retail level was lost at the pre-consumer stage and 10.7% was lost at the post-consumer stage. Out of the food categories examined, ‘fruits and vegetables’ constituted the largest source of food waste by weight, with grains as the second largest source of food waste by weight. GHGs embodied in edible food waste were calculated. Over the study period an estimated 11.1 t CO2e (100-yr) were embodied in the pre-consumer food waste and 56.1 t were embodied in post-consumer food waste for a total of 67.2 t. The ‘meat and protein’ category represents the largest embodiment of GHG emissions in both the pre- and post-consumer categories despite ranking fourth in total weight. Beef represents the largest contribution to post-consumer GHG emissions embodied in food waste with an estimated 34.1 t CO2e. This distinction between the greatest sources of food waste by weight and the greatest sources of GHG emissions is relevant when considering alternative management options for food waste.

Organic farmers in western Canada rely on tillage to control weeds and incorporate crop residues that could plug mechanical weed-control implements. However, tillage significantly increases the risk of soil erosion. For farmers seeking to reduce or eliminate tillage, potential alternatives include mowing or using a roller crimper for terminating green manure crops (cover crops) or using a minimum tillage (min-till) rotary hoe for mechanically controlling weeds. Although many researchers have studied organic crop production in western Canada, few have studied no-till organic production practices. Two studies were recently conducted in Saskatchewan to determine the efficacy of the following alternatives to tillage: mowing and roller crimping for weed control, and min-till rotary hoeing weed control in field pea (Pisum sativum L.). The first study compared mowing and roller crimping with tillage when terminating faba bean (Vicia faba L.) and field pea green manure crops. Early termination of annual green manure crops with roller crimping or mowing resulted in less weed regrowth compared with tillage. When compared with faba bean, field pea produced greater crop biomass, suppressed weeds better and had less regrowth. Wheat yields following pea were not affected by the method of termination. Thus, this first study indicated that roller crimping and mowing are viable alternatives to tillage to terminate field pea green manure crops. The second study evaluated the tolerance and efficacy of a min-till rotary harrow in no-till field pea production. The min-till rotary hoe was able to operate in no-till cereal residues and multiple passes did not affect the level of residue cover. Field pea exhibited excellent tolerance to the min-till rotary hoe. Good weed control occurred with multiple rotary hoe passes, and pea seed yield was 87% of the yield obtained in the herbicide-treated check. Therefore, this second study demonstrated that min-till rotary hoeing effectively controls many small seeded annual weeds in the presence of crop residue and thus can reduce the need for tillage in organic-cropping systems.

When animal husbandry is not included in organic farming systems, green manure may be crucial to preserve or increase soil organic matter content and to ensure an adequate N supply to crops. Different species, both legumes and nonlegumes, may be used as cover crops. The present research was carried out to investigate the effect of different green manure crops [oats and barley mixture (Avena sativa L. and Hordeum vulgare L.), rye (Secale cereale L.), brown mustard (Brassica juncea L.), flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), pigeon bean (Vicia faba L. var. minor)] on the production of the following tomato crop. A field trial was conducted for two cropping seasons (2003–2004 and 2004–2005) in a commercial organic farm. The yield of tomato crop was positively affected by pigeon bean, although statistically significant differences in comparison with the other treatments were observed only in 2004–2005, when the experiment was conducted in a less fertile soil. This was probably due mainly to the effect of the pigeon bean cover crop on N availability. In fact, this species, in spite of a lower biomass production than the other cover crops considered in the study, provided the highest N supply and a more evident increase of soil N-NO3. Also, cover crop efficiency, evaluated using the N recovery index, reached higher values in pigeon bean, especially in the second year. The quality of tomato fruits was little influenced by the preceding cover crops. Nevertheless, when tomato followed pigeon bean, fruits showed a lower firmness compared to other cover crops, and in the second year this was associated with a higher fruit N content.

Pollinator declines coupled with increasing demand for insect pollinated crops have the potential to cause future pollinator shortages for our most nutritious and valuable crops. Ensuring adequate crop pollination may necessitate a shift in pollination management, from one that primarily relies on the managed European honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) to one that integrates alternative pollinators. While a growing body of scientific evidence supports significant contributions made by naturally occurring, native bees for crop pollination, translating research to practice requires buy-in from growers. The intention of agricultural extension is to address grower needs and concerns; however, few studies have assessed grower knowledge, perceptions and attitudes about native pollinators. Here we present findings from questionnaire-based surveys of over 600 apple growers in New York State and Pennsylvania, coupled with ecological data from bee surveys. This hybrid sociological and biological survey allows us to compare grower knowledge and perceptions to an actual pollinator census. While up to 93% of respondents highly valued importance of native bees, 20% growers did not know how much native bees actually contribute to their orchard pollination. Despite the uncertainty, a majority of growers were open to relying on native bees (up to 60% in NY and 67% in PA) and to making low-cost changes to their farm's management that would benefit native pollinators (up to 68 in NY and 85% in PA). Growers consistently underestimated bee diversity, but their estimates corresponded to major bee groups identifiable by lay persons, indicating accurate local knowledge about native bees. Grower reliance on honeybees increased with farm size; because native bee abundance did not measurably decrease with farm size, renting honeybees may be motivated by risk avoidance rather than grower perception of lower native bee activity. Demonstrated effectiveness of native pollinators and clear guidelines for their management were the most important factors influencing grower decision to actively manage orchards for native bees. Our results highlight a pressing need for an active and research-based extension program to support diversification of pollination strategies in the region.

Results from long-term experimental trials suggest that similar yields and lower costs are possible with organic compared to conventional soybeans, but there is little information about the relative costs and returns of these systems on commercial farms. This study examines the profitability of commercial soybean production using a nationwide survey of soybean producers for 2006 that includes a targeted sample of organic growers. Treatment-effect models are specified to characterize adopters of the organic approach and to isolate the impact of organic choice on operating, operating and capital, and total economic costs of soybean production. Organic soybean producers tend to be younger, have less crop acreage, and are less likely to work off-farm than conventional producers. Organic soybean production costs range from about $1 to $6 per bushel higher than those for conventional soybeans due to both lower yields and higher per-acre costs, while the average organic price premium in 2006 was more than $9 per bushel. Long-term cropping systems data suggest significant returns to organic systems result from similar yields and lower costs than conventional systems, but the high returns to commercial organic production found in this study can only be attributed to the significant price premiums paid for organic soybeans. Average organic soybean price premiums have remained high since 2006 despite much higher conventional soybean prices as users of organic soybeans attempt to retain and attract more acreage. However, increases in conventional soybean prices and fuel prices reduce the incentive for planting organic soybeans by improving returns to conventional production and increasing the relative costs of organic production.

Using actual retail purchases from the 2006 Nielsen Homescan panel data, we estimate a hedonic model on price premiums and discounts associated with household characteristics, market factors, and product attributes focusing on the organic attribute for fluid milk. The organic attribute carries a significant price premium, which is largest of all product attributes considered in this study. Further, additional price variations among organic milk are observed for differences in fat content, container size and branding. Specifically, the results suggest that organic price premiums for half-gallon milk range from $1.23 for whole private label organic milk (60–68% above conventional counterpart) to $1.86 for nonfat/skim-branded organic milk (89–109% above conventional counterpart). The study also found that milk sold in a discount store (i.e., supercenter or club warehouse) was price 13 cents per half gallon, or 7.4%, below milk sold through other venues, and that milk on sale was priced 26 cents per half gallon, or 14.3%, less than the regular average price. Although household characteristics exert little influence on price relative to product attributes and market factors, the study does find that unmarried households and those with children under six pay slightly higher prices for milk, possibly due to time constraints.

Cotton is a leading agricultural non-food commodity associated with soil degradation, water pollution and pesticide poisoning due to high levels of agrochemical inputs. Organic farming is often promoted as a means of addressing the economic, environmental and health risks of conventional cotton production, and it is slowly gaining ground in the global cotton market. Organic and fair trade cotton are widely seen as opportunities for smallholder farmers to improve their livelihoods thanks to higher returns, lower input costs and fewer risks. Despite an increasing number of studies comparing the profitability of organic and non-organic farming systems in developing and industrialized countries, little has been published on organic farming in Central Asia. The aim of this article is to describe the economic performance and perceived social and environmental impacts of organic cotton in southern Kyrgyzstan, drawing on a comparative field study conducted by the author in 2009. In addition to economic and environmental aspects, the study investigated farmers’ motivations toward and assessment of conversion to organic farming. Cotton yields on organic farms were found to be 10% lower, while input costs per unit were 42% lower; as a result, organic farmers’ cotton revenues were 20% higher. Due to lower input costs as well as organic and fair trade price premiums, the average gross margin from organic cotton was 27% higher. In addition to direct economic benefits, organic farmers enjoy other benefits, such as easy access to credit on favorable terms, provision of uncontaminated cottonseed cooking oil and cottonseed cake as animal feed, and marketing support as well as extension and training services provided by newly established organic service providers. The majority of organic farmers perceive improved soil quality, improved health conditions, and positively assess their initial decision to convert to organic farming. The major disadvantage of organic farming is the high manual labor input required. In the study area, where manual farm work is mainly women's work and male labor migration is widespread, women are most affected by this negative aspect of organic farming. Altogether, the results suggest that, despite the inconvenience of a higher workload, the advantages of organic farming outweigh its disadvantages and that conversion to organic farming improves the livelihoods of small-scale farmers.

The transition away from forage-based cropping systems in Iowa to corn and soybean rotations since World War II has corresponded with degraded economic and environmental conditions in the state. Falling net incomes for farmers and concern over global warming and the effects of agriculture-related pollution on water, wildlife and human health have increased interest in diversified cropping systems. This paper reviews the benefits of diversifying Iowa corn and soybean rotations with perennial forage species such as alfalfa and red clover. Perennial forage crops improve soil quality, decrease NO3-N leaching and soil erosion, increase carbon sequestration and decrease pesticide and herbicide needs by controlling weed and insect pests. Forage legumes reduce N fertilizer needs for succeeding corn crops at a higher rate than soybeans, and corn crops following forages have higher yields than after corn or soybeans. Farmers who add alfalfa to corn and soybean rotations could realize significant economic gains. A simulated 5-year rotation in Iowa including corn–soybeans–oats/alfalfa–alfalfa–alfalfa would result in a 24% net income increase over 5 years of corn–soybean–corn–soybean–corn, even with government farm support payments for the row crops. Farm policies that encourage commodity production create little incentive for Iowa farmers to diversify their cropping systems beyond corn and soybeans, despite the clear economic and ecological benefits. We recommend increasing federal support for conservation programs that reward environmentally beneficial farm practices such as the Conservation Securities Program and we encourage land grant universities to hire researchers interested in alternative agricultural systems.

Food insecurity remains high in most of sub-Saharan African. That insecurity is made even more acute by the increasing scarcity and degradation of natural resources. Low soil fertility is a consistent problem faced by agriculturalists and herders. The dominant international thrust to increase food production has been to stimulate trade, enhanced by technology and its transfer. While international bodies acknowledge the importance of small farmers, they operate as if improving the technologies, trade regimes and value chains that are characteristic of industrial agriculture will have the same results in local ecosystems in developing countries. Price volatility makes access to purchased inputs more risky for smallholders and the governments that subsidize those inputs. The diverse local contexts that serve as the base of African agriculture are thus assumed to be overridden by technology. In contrast, a systems approach that focuses on sustainability of the local ecosystem, social and cultural relationships and economic security can be as, or more productive than industrial agriculture and have a much better opportunity to increase food security in developing countries. Such a systems-based shift in practices, such as the application of conservation agriculture and integrated systemic approaches in Millennium Villages, have potential of addressing household livelihood strategies and production issues in a sustainable, farmer-based way. Resource-conserving agriculture has been shown to increase yields in developing countries. Priority should be given to developing technologies that follow the systems principles of sustainable agriculture, integrating biological and ecological processes (such as nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, soil regeneration and biodiversity) into the production processes; minimizing use of non-renewable inputs that cause harm to the environment or to the health of farmers and consumers; and making productive use of the knowledge and skills of farmers and their collective capacities to work together to solve common problems. A variety of models are on the ground in Africa, and there is political will in the African Union to increase investment in agriculture. What sort of investments, policy interventions and capacity building are more effective in increasing productivity and the well-being of agricultural producers? Are strategies aimed at reducing the number of people involved in farming and herding viable in the context of a stagnant world economy?

Social factors, such as farming methods, have an impact on farm vulnerability to drought, but have received little research or policy attention. Some researchers and advocates have argued that sustainable agriculture systems are less vulnerable to climate risk than conventional systems because sustainable agriculture requires producers to have skills promoting adaptability. In this paper, we investigate producers’ perceptions on the use of sustainable agriculture in reducing drought risk, and what they believe would help them better adapt to drought. We surveyed and interviewed farmer members of two sustainable agriculture organizations in Nebraska, USA, during a multi-year drought period from 1999 to 2007. Producers reported implementing a range of practices, such as organic soil building techniques, reduced tillage, targeted crop selection and diversification of crop and livestock production systems, to reduce their drought vulnerability. Although some practices were implemented specifically to reduce drought risk, producers felt that the practices they implemented as part of their normal operation were largely responsible for reducing their risk. Respondents held mixed views on the effects of insurance and farm programs on their drought management decisions. Finally, producers indicated that their ability to adapt to drought is limited by a number of barriers, especially a lack of capital and the need to respond to markets and maximize production to maintain cash flows.

Although discussion of the role of urban agriculture in developing nations has occurred over the past decade, dialogue relating to urban agriculture in industrialized countries, including the United States (US) has only recently begun to attract significant attention. The unique factors that influence urban agriculture, including limited and non-traditional land access, use of reclaimed soils and alternative growing mediums, local legal and political environments, social and community-based missions, and involvement of non-traditional farmers, create a production system distinct from rural agricultural enterprises. In many cases, specific local environmental and external factors drive urban farms to develop unique innovations for space-intensive production systems, often creating a dominant paradigm for urban farming for a given location. Furthermore, non-production-related organizational goals are often the primary focus of urban agricultural operations, with the food production becoming a secondary objective. In order to address this information gap regarding the status of urban agriculture in the US, our project, centered at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, gathered data through site visits to and interviews of organizations in seven cities, examining how structural and strategic food system factors shape urban agricultural efforts. A broad range of operations are considered, including diverse business and production models based on both commercial and community-based management strategies and production in parking and vacant lots, warehouses, public land and peri-urban locations. Based on these observations, the unique innovations in space-intensive agricultural production that have arisen in response to urban food system factors are discussed. We conclude with an assessment of the most significant challenges continuing to face urban agriculture.

Pollinator declines and dependence on insect pollination, particularly in fruit and vegetable crops, creates a pressing need to understand growers' interactions with pollinators and factors affecting pollination strategies. At present, many growers are dependent on commercial honey bees (Apis mellifera), but diversified strategies may be necessary to secure adequate crop pollination in the future. As of yet, little social science research exists on pollination practices. This article presents the results of a survey of lowbush blueberry growers in Maine. The survey was part of a five-year pollination security study focusing on four fruit and vegetables crops in the Northeast US. The survey assesses grower perceptions of native pollinators' effectiveness and their perceptions of native pollinators' contribution to fruit set. Results indicate a widespread perception among growers of native pollinators' importance. While native pollinators are not effective enough to replace rented honey bees for three-quarters of the industry, they are broadly seen as an important form of insurance in poor weather when honey bees' effectiveness is reduced. The main obstacle to greater utilization of native pollinators found in this study was uncertainty over native pollinators' contribution to yield and the associated difficulty monitoring native pollinators' population size. Scientists and extension experts must work to reduce these obstacles before more widespread use of native pollinators will occur.

Demonstrated economic benefits of conversion to organic agriculture, combined with solutions to technical and production-related problems, suggest that farmers in Switzerland should have converted in large numbers to organic production. However, the number of organic farms in Switzerland has remained virtually constant in the last 10 yr, so it appears there are other factors that influence the decision of whether or not to convert. Several studies have sought to identify the factors that influence the decisions by farmers whether or not to convert to organic, but have found a range of factors that appear to be context dependent, while others can be seen as context transcendent, which makes it difficult to draw generalizable conclusions. The aim of this study was to identify how Swiss farmers’ decisions reflect the interaction of perceptions, relationships, policies and economic factors, which either enable or provide barriers to conversion. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in 2015 with 39 farmers of mixed and arable farms in the German- (n = 24) and French-speaking (n = 15) parts of Switzerland. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and analyzed according to their content. The results show that the decision of whether or not to convert relies on belief that technical problems have been sufficiently solved, as well as a range of social factors. Farmers perceive social pressure for them to be productive, but non-organic farmers often incorrectly perceive organic farming as not being oriented toward production. Furthermore, ‘official’ advice, which could correct this misperception, is sought about how, rather than whether, to convert and typically comes after farmers have made their decision. Major barriers in an area with a low density of organic farms are the lack of supply and delivery points within an acceptable travel distance, and lack of peer networks to provide informal support. On the basis of these findings, we propose that strategies to encourage conversion should be based around two main pillars: investment to create a network of supply and delivery points in areas with low density of organic farms; and actions, such as information events, to encourage dialogue between conventional and organic farmers to counteract feelings of ‘us vs them’.