In recent years, consumer attitudes toward fat of animal origin have changed owing to findings that some milk fatty acids (FAs) are positive for human health, especially conjugated linolenic acid and n-3 FAs. Accordingly, the manipulation of the fat content and FA composition of cows’ milk via nutritional strategies has been an important target for the dairy industry in many countries. Twenty commercial Holstein–Friesian dairy herds of Asturias (northern Spain) with 1106 dairy cows were examined in order to evaluate milk FA profiles under different management systems. These herds were divided into three groups according to management: (1) indoor herds: cows feeding indoors, (2) mixed herds: indoor management system but with at least 6 h of grazing outdoors and (3) outdoor herds: cows allowed 6–18 h of grazing per day. Milk from the indoor herds exhibited the highest concentration of fat (3.57%; P⩽0.01), protein (3.14%; P⩽0.001), lactose (4.76%; P⩽0.01) and urea (29.4 mg dl−1; P⩽0.01). The milk of outdoor herds had a lower (P⩽0.05) content of short-chain FAs than that of the indoor and mixed herds (10.89 versus 11.52 and 11.35 g 100 g−1 FA). The milk of the indoor herds had higher concentrations of saturated fatty acids (SFA) (67.56 g 100 g−1 FA; P⩽0.001) and palmitic and palmitoleic acids (30.16 and 1.82 g 100 g−1 FA, respectively), while that of the mixed and outdoors herds had higher concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) (34.58 g 100 g−1 FA; P⩽0.001) and long-chain FAs, especially stearic (13.89 g 100 g−1 FA; P⩽0.01), vaccenic (2.77 g 100 g−1 FA; P⩽0.001), conjugated linoleic (0.92 g 100 g−1 FA; P⩽0.001) and linolenic (0.42 g 100 g−1 FA; P⩽0.001) acids. Results from this study suggest that the incorporation of forage and pasture in the diet of dairy cows can improve the FA profile of milk.

Weed management is often the most troublesome technical problem to be solved in organic farming, especially in poorly competitive crops like vegetables. A four-year (2000–2003) series of trials was established to assess the possibility of adopting an innovative non-chemical weed management system in organic carrot grown on the Fucino plateau, i.e., the most important carrot-growing area in Italy. The system utilized for physical weed control was based first on a false seedbed technique followed by pre-sowing weed removal, performed with a special 2 m wide 6-row spring-tine harrow. Prior to crop emergence, a pass with a flame weeder equipped with four 50 cm wide-open flame burners was also performed. Post-emergence weed control consisted of one or more hoeing passes with a purpose-designed 11-tine precision hoe equipped with spring implements (torsion weeders and vibrating tines), in addition to hand weeding. This innovative system was applied to a novel planting pattern (sowing in ten individual rows within 2 m wide beds) and compared to the standard management system of the area (sowing within 2 m wide beds but in five bands, use of spring-tine harrowing and flame weeding pre-emergence and of traditional hoeing post-emergence). The new system was tested in different commercial farms including both early and late-sown carrot. Assessments included machine operative characteristics, labor time, weed density and biomass, crop root yield and yield quality, and economic data (physical weed control costs and crop gross margin). Compared to the standard system, the innovative system usually resulted in reduced labor time (from 28 to 40%) and total costs for physical weed control (on average −416 € ha−1). Use of the precision hoe resulted in intra-row weed reduction ranging from 65 to 90%, which also led to a marked reduction in the labor required for hand weeding. In 2001 the two systems did not differ in terms of yield and yield quality, whereas in 2002 and 2003 the innovative system showed a higher mean density of carrot plants (from 28 to 55%), root yield (from 30 to 42%), and gross margin (from 40 to 100%). Carrot yield was higher in farms which adopted an early sowing whereas root commercial quality was somewhat variable between systems and years. In general, results obtained with the innovative management system look very promising.

Women are the fastest growing segment of farm operators in the United States, comprising approximately 14% of principal operators and 30% of all operators of the nation's 2.2 million farms. Although several studies have examined the adoption of conservation practices by farmers, no study of which we are aware has focused on the use of conservation practices among women farmers in the US. Therefore, in 2008, we conducted a survey of women farmers in the Northeast US to better understand their use of conservation practices, and how their use is affected by demographic and farm characteristics, and membership in agricultural organizations and networks. We examined the practices related to the type of agricultural organizations, including commodity producer organizations, general farm organizations, women's groups associated with general farm or commodity organizations, farm women's organizations, and sustainable/organic agriculture organizations. Over 85% of the 815 respondents belonged to at least one organization. The most common organizations reported were sustainable/organic agriculture organizations (53.5%) and general farm organizations (50.8%). About one-third of respondents belonged to commodity-based organizations. The states with organized women farmers' networks—Pennsylvania, Maine and Vermont—represented more than half of them. Members of women's and sustainable or organic agriculture organizations tended to be younger, have less farming experience, and to have received more formal agricultural education than did members of commodity-based, general farm and women's agricultural groups within general farm organizations. Our results indicate that organizational membership and participation provide critical networks that support and reinforce the use of conservation practices. Some practices were positively associated with one type of organization while negatively associated with others. For example, compost production/application, crop rotation, manure incorporation, and organic crop and livestock production are more likely among members of sustainable/organic agriculture organizations, but less likely among members of general farm organizations. The converse is true for integrated pest management (IPM) on crop farms. Specific conservation practices had unique sets of variables linked to their use, with farm products being the most frequent predictors. This research serves as a baseline to understand the array of conservation practices used by women farmers in the Northeast US, and some factors associated with their use. The results suggest the need for consideration of the applicability of existing adoption models for women farmers. As women tend to have diversified operations with multiple markets, educational and regulatory programs that attempt to reach women farmers may need to consider the specific types of farms they operate to best match practices to their situations and goals.

Intermediated markets are relatively new market channels that have the potential to expand local and regional food systems while increasing the viability of small- and medium-sized farms. The intermediated channels comprise a short supply chain linking farmers with consumers through the use of intermediary such as a distributor or supermarket. In many instances, these supply chains embed social or environmental values, such as supporting local farming. In this paper, we examine the current state of knowledge about the intermediated market channel. The first source of knowledge consists of data from federal and private sources. Next, we review a selection of the published literature focusing on farmer use of intermediated market channels in the USA. The main intermediated channels include direct to institutions, such as schools and hospitals; food hubs; and direct to retail. The paper finishes by raising questions about future of intermediated markets, based on the findings of the literature review and data.

Globalization of food trade in agricultural commodities is in some senses the antithesis of key concepts of sustainable agriculture. Global trade in food products distances the depletion of resources and environmental impacts of food production from the economic and social processes that drive consumption and increases the global risks from introduction of species that become pests. However, both supply and market value chains have emerged as major sub-systems in the larger global agro-food trade system that exert enormous importance over the potential for change in agricultural production at the farm level. This special issue presents studies of seven value chains that exhibit the breadth of research about value chains and their potential contributions to sustainable agriculture. They address value chains at different scales and dealing in various products. These studies contribute to the body of knowledge with a focus on lesser researched regions and products. Most important, they demonstrate the potential for value chains to enhance agricultural sustainability for rural populations and reduce food insecurity and inequities.

Short food supply chains (SFSCs) and civic agriculture are emerging as promising means to support small and medium-sized farms, revitalize rural communities and transform producer/consumer relationships. To find out more about SFSCs and civic agriculture in Maine and to examine factors that promote their success, this study interviewed 31 successful, locally focused Maine farmers and observed many of their market outlets. The study documented the nature and extent of each farm enterprise and each marketing outlet. Farmers were asked to describe their goals, their reasons for success, what they would do differently, and what major problems they had encountered. In the interviews, key factors found to support successful locally focused farming were civic involvement in local communities, production of high-quality products tailored to customer wants and needs, vision and planning pursued in a flexible and adaptive fashion, and personal relationships with customers that foster ongoing mutual education and provide marketing feedback to the farmers. Major challenges revolve around the need for farmland preservation policies, training and financial support for new farmers, working capital for new and experienced farmers, business planning assistance, and lack of infrastructure, such as meat slaughtering and grain milling facilities.

Anaerobic digestion of manure and crops provides the possibility of a combined production of renewable energy and organic fertilizer on organic farms and has been suggested as an option to improve sustainability of organic agriculture. In the present study, the consequences of implementation of anaerobic digestion and biogas production were analyzed on a 1000 ha model farm with combined dairy and cash crop production, representing organic agriculture in Denmark. The effects on crop rotation, nitrogen flows and losses, yield, energy balance and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were evaluated for four scenarios of biogas production on the farm. Animal manure was digested for biogas production in all scenarios and was supplemented with: (1) 100 ha grass–clover for biogas, (2) 100 ha maize for biogas, (3) 200 ha grass–clover for biogas and reduced number of livestock, and (4) 200 ha grass–clover for biogas, reduced number of livestock and import of biomass from cuttings made in ungrazed meadows. These four scenarios were compared with the current situation in organic agriculture in Denmark and to a situation where slurry from conventional agriculture is no longer imported. Implementation of anaerobic digestion changed the nitrogen flows on the farm by increasing the slurry nitrogen plant availability and introducing new nitrogen sources from legume-based energy crops or meadows. The amount of nitrogen available for application as fertilizer on the farm increased when grass–clover was used for biogas production, but decreased when maize was used. Since part of the area was used for biogas production, the total output of foodstuffs from the farm was decreased. Effects on GHG emissions and net energy production were assessed by use of the whole-farm model FarmGHG. A positive farm energy balance was obtained for all biogas scenarios, showing that biomass production for biogas on 10% of the farm area results in an energy surplus, provided that the heat from the electricity production is utilized. The energy surplus implies a displacement of fossil fuels and thereby reduced CO2 emission from the farm. Emissions of N2O were not affected substantially by biogas production. Total emissions of methane (CH4) were slightly decreased due to a 17–48% decrease in emissions from the manure store. Net GHG emission was reduced by 35–85% compared with the current situation in organic agriculture. It was concluded that production of biogas on organic farms holds the possibility for the farms to achieve a positive energy balance, provide self-sufficiency with organic fertilizer nitrogen, and reduce GHG emissions.

Surface-soil structural condition in perennial pastures is expected to be modified by how forage is (a) harvested through haying or grazing and (b) stimulated through source of nutrients applied, as well as by compactive forces, e.g., grazing cattle or hay harvest machinery. Changes in surface-soil condition can affect hydrologic processes that have important implications for plant growth, greenhouse gas emissions and off-site water quality. We determined the effects of harvest management and nutrient source on the rate of ponded water infiltration and penetration resistance in a bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.]/tall fescue (Lolium arundinaceum Schreb. S.J. Darbyshire) pasture on a Typic Kanhapludult in Georgia. During a period when soil was wet (61% water-filled pore space), the rate of water infiltration was 2.8 ± 1.5 times greater when forage was left unharvested as when hayed or grazed (mean ± standard deviation among nine nutrient source × harvest management comparisons). During a subsequent period, when soil was dry (28% water-filled pore space), the rate of water infiltration followed the same treatment pattern, but was not statistically different among harvest-management practices (1.5 ± 0.4 times greater between unharvested and other systems). Penetration resistance of the surface at 10 cm depth followed the order: unharvested (62 J) < hayed (100 J) < low grazing pressure (119 J) < high grazing pressure (137 J). Water infiltration during the wet period was negatively related (P ⩽ 0.01) to soil-water content (r = − 0.57), penetration resistance at 0–10 cm depth (r = − 0.50) and bulk density at 3–6 cm depth (r = − 0.53), but was positively related to surface residue C (r = 0.47) and soil organic C concentration at 12–20 cm depth (r = 0.42). These results suggest that complex soil physical (i.e., aggregation, penetration resistance and infiltration) and biological (i.e., plant growth, surface residues and soil organic matter) interactions occur in pastures. We conclude that well-managed grazing systems with excellent ground cover should have adequate hydrologic condition to promote pasture productivity and limit environmental contamination from runoff. Further work is needed to understand the linkages between field- and watershed-scale hydrology in perennial pastures and their implications on water quality.

Despite the surge of interest in urban agriculture, there have been few studies that address the biophysical challenges and opportunities of food production in urban environments. This study aims to determine the relative influence of atmospheric pollutants and microclimatic factors on the physiological response and productivity of vegetable crops across an urban-to-rural latitudinal transect in the greater Chicago metropolitan region. Data collected at each of six sites include continuous measures of atmospheric pollutants and microclimatic factors, and biweekly measures of physiological response and yield of various vegetable crops and cultivars. Preliminary data collected in early 2013 suggest that there is substantial variability in environmental factors and crop yield across this urban-to-rural transect. Results of this study will provide a scientific basis for crop adaptation to the urban environment and establish practical crop and cultivar recommendations for urban and peri-urban farmers in the North Central US.

In this paper, we assess whether or not organic agriculture has a positive impact on local economies. We first identify organic agriculture hotspots (clusters of counties with positively correlated high numbers of organic operations) using spatial statistics. Then, we estimate a treatment effects model that classifies a county's membership in an organic hotspot as an endogenous treatment variable. By modeling what a hotspot county's economic indicators would have been had the county not been part of a hotspot, this model captures the effect of being in a hotspot on a county's economic indicators. We perform the same analysis for general agricultural farm hotspots to confirm that the benefits associated with organic production hotspots are, in fact, due to the organic component. Our results show that organic hotspot membership leads to a lower county-level poverty rate and a higher median household income. A similar result is not found when investigating the impact of general agriculture hotspots. On the other hand, our result is robust to alternative hotspot definitions based on type of organic operations to alternative methods of estimating average treatment effects on the treated. These results provide strong motivation for considering hotspots of organic handling operations, which refers to middlemen such as processors, wholesalers and brokers, and hotspots of organic production to be local economic development tools, and may be of interest to policymakers whose objective is to promote rural development. Our results may incentivize policymakers to specifically focus on organic development, rather than the more general development of agriculture, as a means to promote economic growth in rural areas, and may further point them in the direction of not only encouraging the presence of organic operations, but of fostering the development of clusters or hotspots of these operations.

A study on locally available composts in Austria, Germany, Italy and Switzerland was conducted to investigate the potential of these non-chemical based tools to increase soil health in orchards afflicted by apple replant disease (ARD). A total of 26 different composts (six to seven per country) were chosen for the study. Composts were divided into ten types according to the waste materials used as substrates in the composting process. Growth reduction is the main symptom associated with replant disease; therefore compost performance was evaluated based on the growth responses of apple rootstock plantlets in compost-amended soils in pots. These greenhouse trials were performed in one research station per country, located in an intensive apple-growing area, and soil was taken from an apple orchard affected by replanting disease. Plant growth response was measured as shoot elongation at the end of each greenhouse trial, and results showed increases in growth compared with the respective controls of 2–26% in 20 out of 26 composts evaluated. The heterogeneous nature of the composts most likely attributed to the finding that similar compost types originating from the different countries had varying effects on plant growth. Overall, no significant changes in chemical and biological properties were observed in amended soils as compared with non-amended controls. The high soil resilience was in part expected given the good organic matter content in the original soils (>2%). The bacterial communities of the composts were investigated using the COMPOCHIP microarray, and analyses showed that differences in plant growth response were mainly attributed to the microbial changes introduced into the soil through composts rather than to changes in soil chemical and biological parameters. However, the bacterial communities of composts appeared to be more influenced by geographical origin than by compost type. The results have shown that soil amendment with composts generated from locally produced wastes have the potential to reduce the effects of ARD, although the effects appear to be both compost and soil specific.

The degradation of the traditional cultural landscape due to abandonment of agricultural management is perceived as a serious problem in different parts of the world. Rising consciousness concerning this issue in Japan led to the formation of numerous voluntary civil farming programs. This paper presents a multi-method case study conducted in Japan (Ōyamasenmaida, Chiba prefecture) about a highly relevant rural–urban cooperation, where landholders lease out their rice terraces to city dwellers to grow their own rice under the intensive instruction and well-organized support by local farmers and other local experts. The activity is known as ‘Tanada Ownership’ (tanada means rice terrace). It is spread over the country and promises, in contrast to the short-term individualistic European models, long-term rural–urban relations, the valorization of local knowledge and natural resources as well as the maintenance of the rice-terrace landscapes in several regions of Japan. The particular goal of this research is the investigation of the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of the system and the motivation of its participants. The Japanese approach is compared with similar European initiatives and conclusions focus on the particularities of the Japanese Ownership System and its transferability to the European context. Despite the innovativeness and popularity of the Ownership System, scientific studies are relatively scarce and none of them published are in English. This article therefore presents an original and important contribution to the scientific community, as it provides insights into the Tanada Ownership System and puts it into an international context by comparing it with European initiatives of voluntary farm work.

The numerous benefits associated with localized food production have helped increase its popularity among a diverse cross-section of concerned citizens over the past few decades. Quantitative benefits are often attributed to local food systems, such as improvements to local economies or environmental benefits associated with decreased food transportation distances. Qualitative benefits play an equally vital role in the increasing popularity of local foods. The direct connection between people and agricultural land instills a sense of responsibility among consumers, there is a great deal of pride associated with creating a self-sustaining community, and increasing locally derived nutritional produce in our diet can improve health. This research attempts to analyze the feasibility of supplying the nutritional needs for an 11-county region in Southeastern Minnesota entirely from locally grown foods. The study also evaluates an alternative land-use scenario to illustrate how better utilizing land resources can yield environmental benefits in addition to those already inherent with local food production. Potential foodsheds are mapped to represent the theoretical spatial extent of agricultural resources needed to sustain population within the region. The foodshed model finds optimum locations for growing local food based on production potential and availability of agricultural resources to meet the demands of population centers, while minimizing the total distance to transport local foods to nearby distribution centers. Results show that it is theoretically feasible for Southeastern Minnesota to be entirely sustained on local food production. The average distance a unit of food travels in this theoretical baseline scenario is just under 12 km (7.5 miles). The foodshed model produces a surplus of agricultural supply in the region, thus an alternative land-use scenario was explored that involves removing marginal cropland from cultivation in vulnerable landscapes with high ecological value in an attempt to further increase the environmental benefits of locally grown foods. In comparison with the baseline foodshed model, the alternative land-use foodshed converts 68,000 ha (168,000 acres) of marginal cropland on vulnerable landscapes from annually cultivated land to perennial agriculture. This conversion not only reduces total distance traveled by a unit of food from 11.8 km (7.3 miles) in the baseline scenario to 10.8 km (6.7 miles) in the alternative scenario, but also reduces soil degradation, has positive impacts on surface water quality, and may lead to better wildlife habitat. The multiple benefits demonstrated by this study are encouraging to leaders of the local food movement in Southeastern Minnesota. Results of the study demonstrate that the methodology developed for mapping New York state foodsheds is adaptable to the Midwestern US, and should also be adaptable in other regions of the country.

Three different cotton production strategies [certified organic, conventionally grown, and reduced insecticide input/integrated pest management (IPM)] were compared in field-sized replicates in the Northern San Joaquin Valley (NSJV), California, from 1996 to 2001. We measured arthropod abundance, plant development, plant density, pesticide use, cost of production, lint quality and yields in the three treatments. Overall pest abundance was low, and a key cotton fruit pest, Lygus hesperus Knight, known as the western tarnished plant bug (WTPB), did not exceed action thresholds in any treatment. Organic fields had significantly more generalist insect predators than conventional fields during at least one seasonal interval in all but one year. While there were no significant differences in plant development, plant densities at harvest were lower in organic than conventional and IPM fields. Some measures of lint quality (color grade and bale leaf rating) were also lower in the organic treatment than in either the IPM or the conventional treatments. Synthetic insecticides, not allowed for use in organic production, were also used in significantly lower quantities in the IPM fields than in the conventional fields. Over the 6-year period of the study, IPM fields averaged 0.63 kg of active ingredient (AI) insecticide per hectare, as opposed to 1.02 kg AI ha−1 for conventional fields, a reduction of 38%. Costs of production per bale were on average 37% higher for organic than for conventional cotton. This cost differential was primarily due to greater hand-weeding costs and significantly lower yields in organic cotton, compared with either IPM or conventional cotton. Average 6-year yields were 4.4, 5.4 and 6.7 bales ha−1 for organic, IPM and conventional treatments, respectively. Low world cotton prices and the lack of premium prices for organic cotton are the primary obstacles for continued production in the NSJV.

The rapid growth and co-option of the local agriculture movement highlights a need to deepen connections to place-based culture. Selection of plant varieties specifically adapted to regional production and end-use is an important component of building a resilient food system. Doing so will facilitate a defetishization of food systems by increasing the cultural connection to production and consumption. Today's dominant model of plant breeding relies on selection for centralized production and end-use, thereby limiting opportunity for regional differentiation. On the other hand, end-user-driven selection of heirloom varieties with strong cultural and culinary significance may limit productivity while failing to promote continued advances in end-use quality. Farmer-based selection may directly reflect local food culture; however, increasing genetic gains may require increased exchange of germplasm, and collaboration with trained plant breeders. Participatory farmer–breeder–chef collaborations are an emerging model for overcoming these limitations and adding the strength of culturally based plant breeding to the alternative food movement. These models of variety selection are examined within the context of small grain and dry bean production in Western Washington.

Floating gardening is a form of hydroponics or soil-less culture. It is an age-old practice of crop cultivation in the floodplains of southern Bangladesh, where aquatic plants such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) are used to construct floating platforms on which seedlings are raised and vegetables and other crops cultivated in the rainy season. The platform residue is used in the preparation of beds for winter vegetable gardening. Floating gardening was introduced in 2006 on a pilot-scale in the north-east wetlands of the country, as a contribution to food security and as a supplementary income for the marginalized community. The overall experience of floating cultivation in three selected villages was encouraging. Local people became aware of this new farming system and their level of knowledge improved. Communities were mobilized into groups to make floating platforms, and platform residues were later used to establish winter gardens. Cultivation was successful on both types of plot, and vegetables were both consumed by the producers and sold in the market. The input–output analysis revealed floating gardening to be a feasible alternative livelihood option for the wetland dwellers. The method provided targeted landless people with parcels of land in the monsoon, enabling them to grow vegetables. Floating gardening and associated winter gardening appear to have the potential for introduction to other parts of the world where aquatic weed management is a major problem.

This paper identifies and describes the recent emergence of a new class of private sector intermediaries in fresh fruit and vegetable (FFV) supermarket supply chains in China. These intermediaries play key roles that determine the ways in which farm households participate in and the benefits they derive from new retail-led market opportunities associated with the supermarket sector's shift from FFV procurement through wholesale markets towards more direct contracting with farm communities. This paper provides a comprehensive description of 198 FFV supply chain intermediaries working with Walmart China in 2014, including their historical background, infrastructure investments, downstream marketing and upstream sourcing. We find that these actors play an increasingly critical role in the organization of land, labor and production through contracts. Our study provides critical insights for understanding both the trends in vertical coordination of China's developing agricultural sector and the pace of the country's agricultural modernization. Walmart is a leading international supermarket chain with a growing presence in China, and evidence suggests that their supply chain strategies are similar to other large supermarkets in the region. Results are also relevant to understanding current challenges in China related to food safety and quality, a top priority in recent years.

The expansion of intensive vegetable production systems exacerbates ongoing resource degradation in China's Hebei province. There is an urgent need to develop and disseminate more sustainable vegetable production systems. Intercropping, the simultaneous cultivation of two or more crops on the same field, is widely practiced in the region. Intercropping can use environmental resources more efficiently and is therefore considered to generate high and stable yields with lower inputs. Until now, scientific literature on vegetable intercropping in China is non-existent. To identify prevailing vegetable intercropping systems, a qualitative inquiry was conducted in southern Hebei province. Researchers, extensionists and farmers were interviewed on the occurrence, methods, potentials and constraints of vegetable intercropping. Furthermore, semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted to examine the farmers' underlying motives and concepts and to determine the origin and distribution of the systems. The investigations revealed a huge variety of sophisticated systems being practiced in southern Hebei. Apart from pure vegetable intercropping systems such as spinach–garlic, especially maize–vegetable and cotton–vegetable systems are widespread. The systems are developed by the farmers themselves and disseminated by the state extension service. Apart from the benefits of plant health, the optimal use of limited land resources is the main reason for farmers to exercise intercropping. However, with the ongoing mechanization and labor force reduction in the agricultural sector, a great part of the intercropping systems, which demand a high input of manual labor, are prone to extinction in the long run. Recent research in China focused purely on agronomic advantages of intercropping, neglecting the linkages between the socio-economic developments and farmers' decisions in the field. To overcome this dilemma and to maintain the traditional and sustainable intercropping systems, we conclude that only an integrative research approach that involves various stakeholders from the beginning is able to adjust the intercropping systems to future demands.

Agroforestry (AF) is considered to be a sustainable land use practice as it combines agricultural production with multiple beneficial effects such as carbon sequestration, enhanced nutrient cycling and increased biodiversity. Quantification of these beneficial effects in temperate arable fields is still limited, however, and most studies focus on one sole parameter (i.e., impact on crop productivity, soil quality, biodiversity, etc.). Combined effects are only rarely considered, resulting in a lack of integrated quantification. Here we assess the effect of rows of walnut trees (Juglans regia L.) on soil organic carbon (SOC), soil nutrient status, the presence of potentially beneficial ground-dwelling arthropods and on the yield and quality of neighboring arable crops. Significantly higher SOC and soil nutrient concentrations were found near the trees, which is assumed to be primarily a result of tree leaf litter input. Abundance of macro-detritivorous arthropods was increased in and near the tree rows, whereas only limited effects of tree presence were found on the presence of the predatory arthropod taxa under study. The yield of all crops under study was reduced as a result of tree presence, with the strongest reductions observed for grain maize and sugar beet near the trees (<10 m). In addition, alteration of crop quality was observed near tree rows with decreased dry matter concentration of grain samples and increased crude protein concentration of winter cereals.

Despite the heightened efforts to implement eco-labeling schemes as the market-based vehicle for improving environmental quality, the overall effectiveness of eco-labels are still uncertain due to complex and sometimes unexpected market responses. In this paper, we assess the overall changes in carbon emissions resulting from two types of labeling on fresh apples, carbon labels and location designation labels (e.g., locally grown), both of which can have mixed implications for carbon emissions due to fluctuating supply chain factors. We employ an equilibrium displacement model that integrates existing estimates of differences across production systems, and our own estimates of consumer responses to labels in order to simulate the changes in prices, trade flows and estimate carbon impacts across several scenarios in the US fresh apple market. We find that both labels ultimately affect market outcomes and overall carbon emissions. With location designation labels, consumers’ preference for local products leads to a net decrease in carbon emissions during the local growing season, while the interaction of various market dynamics results in a subsequent net increase in carbon emissions during the local off-season. The interaction of a carbon label with the location label lowers the overall attractiveness of products and reduces the quantity demanded, and thus, reduces the carbon emissions in both seasons. Overall, providing the location designation label increases annual carbon emissions, whereas providing both the location designation and carbon labeling decreases annual emissions. In short, the dynamics and interdependency of labeling strategies are important to consider in the context of eco-labeling.