The present study aimed to identify food patterns among 2–9-year-olds and investigate sociodemographic, anthropometric and behavioural predictors of less healthy dietary patterns.

Cross-sectional study. Parents of 2–9-year-olds completed an FFQ and factor analysis was applied to identify dietary patterns. Parents also completed questionnaires assessing sociodemographic, anthropometric and behavioural characteristics of parents and children, including parental feeding practices.

Participants were recruited from private schools of Campinas and São Paulo, SP, Brazil, between April and June 2014.

Parents of 2–9-year-olds (n 929).

Two dietary patterns emerged: ‘traditional food’ and ‘ultra-processed food’. Lower maternal education (OR=2·05, P=0·010) and higher maternal weight status (OR=1·43, P=0·044) were associated with a greater likelihood of the ultra-processed food pattern. Lower perceived parental responsibility for adequacy of food group intake (OR=2·41, P=0·020), and lower scores on the parental feeding practices of ‘Healthy Eating Guidance’ (OR=1·83, P<0·001) and ‘Monitoring’ (OR=2·52, P<0·001), were also associated with the presence of this pattern, as was higher child’s screen use during mealtimes (OR=1·61, P=0·004).

The present study is the first to evaluate associations between less healthy dietary patterns of Brazilian 2–9-year-olds and parental feeding practices. Our findings highlight sociodemographic, anthropometric and behavioural factors within families that could be used to target tailored policies to at-risk populations.

Farmers’ market interventions are a popular strategy for addressing chronic disease disparities in low-income neighbourhoods. With limited resources, strategic targeting of interventions is critical. The present study used spatial analysis to identify where market interventions have the greatest impact on healthy food access within a geographic region.

All farmers’ markets in a mixed urban/rural county were mapped and those that accepted Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) electronic benefit transfer (EBT) cards identified. Households were grouped into small neighbourhoods and mapped. The area of ‘reasonable access’ around each market (walking distance (0·8 km; 0·5mile) in urban areas, driving distance (15 min) in rural areas) was calculated using spatial analysis. The percentage of county low-income households within a market’s access area, and the percentage of county SNAP-participating households within an EBT-accepting market’s access area, were calculated. The ten neighbourhoods with the most low-income households and with the most SNAP-participating households were then identified, their access areas calculated and mapped, and those lacking access identified. County-level gains resulting from improving market accessibility in these areas were calculated.

None.

Honolulu County, Hawaii, USA.

Only 44 % of SNAP-participating households had EBT-market access. Six of the ten highest SNAP-participant neighbourhoods lacked access. Improving access for these neighbourhoods increased county-level access by 23 %. Market access for low-income households was 74 %. Adding markets to these low-income neighbourhoods without market access increased county-level access by 4 %.

Geographic identification of market access demographics, and strategic targeting of EBT interventions, could improve regional access to healthy foods.

To validate a novel photographic portion guide as a tool to estimate consumption of fish and shrimp. Application of such a validated tool can facilitate accurate individual and community seafood intake assessments and provide meaningful data relative to health benefits and hazard assessment, particularly in response to environmental contamination and disasters.

A photographic fish and shrimp portion guide presenting a stepped range of cooked portion sizes was used by participants to estimate their typical portion sizes. Participants selected their typical portion size from the photographic guide and also from a selection of freshly cooked reference meals. Photographic portions selections were compared with plated reference portions for each participant.

Academic sensory testing laboratory in the USA.

Separate groups of adults (25–64 years) contributed to fish (n 54) and shrimp (n 53) portion size comparison studies.

In the fish study, there was no difference between photographic portion selections (6·59 (sd 2·65) oz (186·8 (sd 75·1) g)) and reference plate selections (7·04 (sd 2·63) oz (199·6 (sd 74·6) g); P=0·384). Similarly in the shrimp study, there was no difference between photographic portion selections (6·88 (sd 3·40) oz (195·0 (sd 96·4) g)) and reference plate selections (6·06 (sd 2·65) oz (171·8 (sd 75·1) g); P=0·159). Photographic portions predicted plated reference portions for both fish and shrimp based on linear regression (P<0·001). Bland–Altman plot analyses showed good agreement between the two methods, <1 oz (<28·3 g) bias, in both fish and shrimp studies.

This validated photographic seafood portion guide provides a utilitarian tool for accurately assessing fish and shrimp intake in a community setting.

To identify individual and contextual socio-economic factors associated with an increase in fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption over a 12-year period and evaluate if some socio-economic factors were differentially associated with the change in consumption of some types of F&V.

Associations between increased F&V consumption and socio-economic factors were studied with multivariate logistic regression.

E3N, a French prospective cohort study of 98 995 women.

E3N participants (n 58 193) with information on diet in 1993 and 2005, and numerous individual and contextual socio-economic factors available.

Associations between some individual socio-economic factors and changes in F&V consumption were observed. For instance, women who lived in a large household (>3 children v. no child) had higher probability of increasing their vegetable consumption (OR=1·33; 95 % CI 1·24, 1·42). This association was driven by higher consumption of courgette and raw cucumber. Living with a partner was associated with higher odds of increasing consumption of fruits (OR=1·07; 95 % CI 1·02, 1·13) such as pear, peach and grape.

Certain individual socio-economic factors, but none of the contextual socio-economic factors examined, were associated with an increase in F&V consumption. Factors associated with an increase in total F&V consumption were not necessarily associated with an increase in fruit or vegetable consumption separately, or with an increase in each subtype of fruit or vegetable. Magnitudes of the different associations observed also differed when F&V were considered together, separately or by subtype. Increases in F&V consumption were mostly observed in women with high socio-economic position. To develop effective nutritional interventions and policies that take the socio-economic environment of individuals into account, we recommend future research to further focus on (i) pathways through which population characteristics might influence changes in F&V consumption and (ii) existing interactions between individual and contextual socio-economic factors.

The aim of the current meta-analysis was to evaluate the accuracy of using BMI based on self-reported height and weight (BMIsr) to estimate the prevalence of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents.

A systematic literature search was conducted to select studies that compared the prevalence rates of overweight and obesity based on BMIsr and BMIm (BMI based on measured height and weight). A random-effect model was assumed to estimate summary prevalence rates and prevalence ratio (PR).

Thirty-seven studies were included. The aggregated prevalence of overweight and obesity based on BMIsr (0·190, 95 % CI 0·163, 0·221) was significantly lower than that based on BMIm (0·233, 95 % CI 0·203, 0·265). The pooled mean PR was 0·823 (95 % CI 0·775, 0·875). Moderator analyses showed that the underestimation was related to gender, age, weight status screened (overweight v. obesity) and weight status screening tool.

BMIsr may produce less biased results under some conditions than others. Future researchers using BMIsr may consider these findings and avoid the conditions that could lead to more severe underestimation of the prevalence of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents.

Anaemia is a major contributor to the global disease burden and half of pregnant women in India were anaemic in 2016. The aetiology of anaemia is complex, yet anaemia determinants are frequently examined in isolation. We sought to explore how shifts in sociodemographic (wealth, age at pregnancy, education, open defecation, cooking fuel type, household size), programmatic (iron–folic acid tablet consumption, antenatal care visits) and dietary factors (intake of Fe, folic acid, vitamin B12, phytate) predicted changes in anaemia prevalence.

Nutrient levels for eighty-eight food items were multiplied by household consumption of these foods to estimate household-level nutrient supply. A synthetic panel data set was created from two rounds of the District Level Household and Facility Survey (2002–04 and 2012–13) and Household Consumer Expenditures Survey (2004–05 and 2011–12). Ordinary least-squares multivariate regression models were used.

Districts (n 446) spanning north, north-east, central and south India.

Pregnant women aged 15–49 years (n 17 138).

In the model accounting for both non-dietary and dietary factors, increased age at pregnancy (P<0·001), reduced village-level open defecation (P=0·001), consuming more Fe (P<0·001) and folic acid (P=0·018) and less phytate (P=0·002), and urbanization (P=0·015) were associated with anaemia reductions. A 10 mg increase in daily household Fe supply from 2012 levels was associated with a 10 % reduction in anaemia.

Public health interventions to combat anaemia in pregnant women should use a holistic approach, including promotion of delayed marriage, construction and use of toilets, and measures that facilitate adoption of nutrient-rich diets.

To validate a picture book for estimation of food portion sizes using two approaches: (i) ‘perception’ of food portions by comparison with a series of food photos; and (ii) ‘conceptualization and memory’, using the same photos to estimate the amount of served food one hour after self-served food portions.

Each partner developed a country-specific picture book based on the so-called EPIC-Soft picture book. Representative and common photo series were chosen achieving approximately 25 % of the original picture book (n 23). Three portions from each photo series were randomly selected.

The study was performed within the Pilot study in the view of a Pan-European dietary survey – Adolescents, adults and elderly (PILOT-PANEU) project.

A sample of adolescents and adults was recruited in five countries: Bulgaria (n 103), Finland (n 34), Germany (n 69), Hungary (n 62) and Portugal (n 77).

Among the portions of the corresponding photo series and depending on the type of food, from 18 % (cheese) to 96 % (ratatouille) of participants chose the correct portions. In the perception study, agreement between the portions shown and reported was substantial (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC)=0·805) and the mean difference was very low. In the memory study, agreement between the served and reported portions was lower than in the perception study (ICC=0·536). Agreement also seemed to decrease as the appearance of food on the plate differed from food in the picture.

Overall, the picture series selected can be applied in future intake surveys to quantify foods similar to those depicted in the pictures.

We examined outcomes following the implementation of employer-wide vending standards, designed to increase healthy snack and beverage options, on the proportion of healthy v. less healthy sales, sales volume and revenue for snack and beverage vending machines.

A single-arm evaluation of a policy utilizing monthly sales volume and revenue data provided by the contracted vendor during baseline, machine conversion and post-conversion time periods. Study time periods are full calendar years unless otherwise noted.

Property owned or leased by the City of Philadelphia, USA.

Approximately 250 vending machines over a 4-year period (2010–2013).

At post-conversion, the proportion of sales attributable to healthy items was 40 % for snacks and 46 % for beverages. Healthy snack sales were 323 % higher (38·4 to 162·5 items sold per machine per month) and total snack sales were 17 % lower (486·8 to 402·1 items sold per machine per month). Healthy beverage sales were 33 % higher (68·2 to 90·6 items sold per machine per month) and there was no significant change in total beverage sales (213·2 to 209·6 items sold per machine per month). Revenue was 11 % lower for snacks ($US 468·30 to $US 415·70 per machine per month) and 21 % lower for beverages ($US 344·00 to $US 270·70 per machine per month).

Sales of healthy vending items were significantly higher following the implementation of employer-wide vending standards for snack and beverage vending machines. Entities receiving revenue-based commission payments from vending machines should employ strategies to minimize potential revenue losses.

The current study aimed to (i) describe racial/ethnic disparities in household food and beverage purchases among participants and non-participants in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and (ii) examine longitudinal associations between SNAP participation and purchases by race/ethnicity.

To describe disparities, we estimated sociodemographic-adjusted mean purchases of seven unhealthy food and beverage groups (e.g. junk food, sugar-sweetened beverages) and four nutrients (e.g. sugar, Na) among white, black and Hispanic SNAP-participating and non-participating households. To examine longitudinal associations, we used multivariable linear regression with household fixed effects.

USA, 2010–2014.

Food and beverage purchases among low-income (≤250 % federal poverty line) US households (n 30 403) participating in the Nielsen Homescan Panel.

Among non-participants, there were significant black–white disparities (i.e. differences favouring white households) in households’ adjusted mean purchases of processed meat, sweeteners, sugar-sweetened beverages, energy and Na. These disparities persisted among SNAP participants. In contrast, the only significant Hispanic–white disparity among non-participants was for Na purchases; this disparity was reduced in magnitude and no longer significant among SNAP-participating households. Additionally, Hispanic households purchased less energy from junk foods than white households, regardless of SNAP status. In longitudinal models accounting for household fixed effects, SNAP participation was associated with increased energy purchased among black households. No other significant longitudinal associations between SNAP and purchase outcomes were observed.

SNAP may not be meeting its potential to improve food and beverage purchases or reduce disparities. Research is needed to identify strategies for ensuring nutritious purchases across all racial/ethnic groups.

There is currently no standard, objective definition of selective eating. This is partially because normative values for the number of different foods eaten by US children have not been established. The present study objectives were to: (i) perform exploratory analysis on the number of different foods, beverages, and total foods and beverages consumed by US children aged 2–18 years over a year’s time, and the types of foods consumed by those in the lowest 2·5th percentile; and (ii) determine whether those values differ according to demographic variables and weight status.

Secondary analysis of cross-sectional FFQ data. Differences in number of foods, beverages, and total foods and beverages were analysed using one-way ANOVA.

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) for the years 2003–2006.

Non-institutionalized US children aged 2–18 years.

The mean number of different foods and beverages consumed across the sample was 83·2. There were no significant differences by gender, BMI, race or food security categories. There was a difference in beverage consumption by age category, with children aged 12–18 years consuming a significantly higher number of different beverages compared with each of the other two age categories (i.e. 2–5 years and 6–11 years).

Normative values for the number of foods and drinks reported as consumed by children over the past 12 months may be a useful measure for researchers. Future research validating this measure is needed before cut-off values can be used to develop a definition of selective eating.

There are some indications of regional differences in the association between fish consumption and clinical outcomes. We aimed to test the linear and potential non-linear dose–response relationships between fish consumption and risk of all-cause and cardiovascular (CVD) mortality, and possible confounding by region.

Systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis.

Systematic search using PubMed and Scopus, from inception up to September 2016.

Prospective observational studies reporting the estimates of all-cause and CVD mortality in relation to three or more categories of fish intake were included. Random-effects dose–response meta-analysis was conducted.

Fourteen prospective cohort studies (ten publications) with 911 348 participants and 75 451 incident deaths were included. A 20 g/d increment in fish consumption was significantly and inversely associated with the risk of CVD mortality (relative risk=0·96; 95 % CI 0·94, 0·98; I2=0 %, n 8) and marginally and inversely associated with the risk of all-cause mortality (relative risk=0·98; 95 % CI 0·97, 1·00; I2=81·9 %, n 14). Subgroup analysis resulted in a significant association only in the subgroup of Asian studies, compared with Western studies, in both analyses. Analysis of Western studies suggested a nearly U-shaped association, with a nadir at fish consumption of ~20 g/d in analysis of both outcomes. Meanwhile, the associations appeared to be linear in Asian studies.

There was potential evidence of regional differences in the association between fish consumption and mortality. It may be helpful to examine the associations by considering types of fish consumed and methods of fish preparation.

South Africa (SA) is in the midst of a health transition characterized by a quadruple burden of diseases and a nutrition transition. The existing nutrition transition in SA, accompanied by the coexistence of under- and overnutrition in the population, motivated the present study. Its objectives were to measure and report the changes in nutrient intakes of rural and urban black Africans over time to assess the impact of urbanization and modernization of lifestyles on dietary intakes and non-communicable disease (NCD) risk.

The PURE-NWP-SA study recruited 2000 black South African volunteers aged 35–70 years in 2005, of which detailed nutrient intakes from 1858 participants were available. In 2010 nutrient intakes of a cohort of 1154 participants were measured.

Median energy intake increased over time. In 2010, rural participants consumed the amount of energy (men 9·7 MJ/d; women 9·1 MJ/d) that urban participants consumed in 2005 (men 9·9 MJ/d; women 9·0 MJ/d). The nutrition transition was characterized by increases in the percentage of energy from animal protein, total fat (rural men and women), saturated (not urban women) and monounsaturated fat, as well as added sugar. Despite the higher energy intake, not all the participants met total micronutrient needs in 2010.

The PURE nutrient intake data confirmed that the nutrition transition in the North West Province of SA is extremely rapid in rural areas. The shift towards higher energy intakes, an animal food-based diet, higher intakes of fat and lower intake of fibre, at the cost of lower plant protein and starchy food intakes, could increase the risk of NCD.

There are abundant data on secular trends in BMI; however, information on the change in subcutaneous fat is limited. The present study examined the trends in the prevalence of elevated skinfold thickness among children and adolescents over the past 19 years (1995–2014) in Shandong Province, China.

Data for the study were obtained from two cross-sectional surveys of schoolchildren carried out in 1995 and 2014. Triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses (SFT) of all participants were measured. The sum of triceps and subscapular SFT (SSFT) was applied. Children and adolescents with SSFT above or equal to the national age- and sex-specific 85th percentile were defined as ‘high SFT’.

Shandong Province, China.

A total of 16 917 students aged 7–18 years were included.

For both boys and girls, an increasing trend in ‘high SFT’ was observed between 1995 and 2014. The overall prevalence of ‘high SFT’ increased from 10·31 % for boys and 13·40 % for girls in 1995 to 33·94 % for boys and 29·30 % for girls in 2014 (P<0·01).

There are more children and adolescents with very high levels of SFT. These trends describe very unfavourable changes in the body composition and should give cause for concern.

Inadequate maternal micronutrient status during pregnancy can lead to short- and long-term health risks for mother and offspring. The present study investigated the association between pre-pregnancy weight status and micronutrient status during pregnancy.

Maternal blood samples were collected during early pregnancy (median 13, interquartile range 12–15 weeks) and were assayed for serum folate, ferritin, Fe and vitamin B12. Regression modelling was used to assess the association between pre-pregnancy underweight, normal weight, overweight and obesity, and micronutrient levels, as well as the odds for deficiencies.

The Amsterdam Born Children and their Development (ABCD) study, the Netherlands.

Women with singleton pregnancies without diabetes (n 4243).

After adjustment for covariates, overweight women and obese women had lower (β; 95 % CI) folate (−1·2; −2·2, −0·2 and −2·3; −4·0, −0·7 nmol/l, respectively) and Fe (−1·7; −2·3, −1·1 and −3·6; −4·7, −2·6 μmol/l, respectively) levels than women with normal weight. Furthermore, overweight women had 6 % (95 % CI −9, −3 %) and obese women had 15 % (−19, −10 %), lower vitamin B12 levels, and obese women had 19 % (6, 32 %) higher ferritin levels, than normal-weight women. Obese women had higher odds (OR; 95 % CI) for folate deficiency (2·03; 1·35, 3·06), Fe deficiency (3·26; 2·09, 5·08) and vitamin B12 deficiency (2·05; 1·41, 2·99) than women with normal weight. Underweight was not associated with micronutrient status.

During early pregnancy, women with pre-pregnancy overweight and obesity had lower serum folate, Fe and vitamin B12 status. This resulted in increased risk of serum folate, Fe and vitamin B12 deficiencies in women with obesity.

To identify the energy contributions of NOVA food groups in the Mexican diet and the associations between individual sociodemographic characteristics and the energy contribution of ultra-processed foods (UPF).

We classified foods and beverages reported in a 24 h recall according to the NOVA food framework into: (i) unprocessed or minimally processed foods; (ii) processed culinary ingredients; (iii) processed foods; and (iv) UPF. We estimated the energy contribution of each food group and ran a multiple linear regression to identify the associations between sociodemographic characteristics and UPF energy contribution.

Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey 2012.

Individuals ≥1 years old (n 10 087).

Unprocessed or minimally processed foods had the highest dietary energy contribution (54·0 % of energy), followed by UPF (29·8 %), processed culinary ingredients (10·2 %) and processed foods (6·0 %). The energy contribution of UPF was higher in: pre-school-aged children v. other age groups (3·8 to 12·5 percentage points difference (pp)); urban areas v. rural (5·6 pp); the Central and North regions v. the South (2·7 and 8·4 pp, respectively); medium and high socio-economic status v. low (4·5 pp, in both); and with higher head of household educational level v. without education (3·4 to 7·8 pp).

In 2012, about 30 % of energy in the Mexican diet came from UPF. Our results showed that younger ages, urbanization, living in the North region, high socio-economic status and high head of household educational level are sociodemographic factors related to higher consumption of UPF in Mexico.

The present study aimed to investigate disordered eating (DE) among Sami compared with non-Sami residing in northern Norway.

In a cross-sectional design, stratified by sex and ethnicity, associations were tested between DE (Eating Disturbance Scale; EDS-5) and age, education level, BMI category, anxiety and depression, physical activity and consumption of snacks.

The SAMINOR 2 Clinical Survey (2012–2014) based on the population of ten municipalities in northern Norway.

Adults aged 40–69 years; 1811 Sami (844 male, 967 female) compared with 2578 non-Sami (1180 male, 1398 female) individuals.

No overall significant ethnic difference in DE was identified, although comfort eating was reported more often by Sami individuals (P=0·01). Regardless of ethnicity and sex, symptoms of anxiety and depression were associated with DE (P<0·001). Furthermore, DE was more common at lower age and higher BMI values. Education levels were protectively associated with DE among Sami men (P=0·01). DE was associated (OR, 95% CI) with low physical activity in men in general and in non-Sami women (Sami men: 2·4, 1·4, 4·0; non-Sami men: 2·2, 1·4, 3·6; non-Sami women: 1·8, 1·2, 2·9) and so was the consumption of snacks (Sami men: 2·6, 1·3, 5·0; non-Sami men: 1·9, 1·1, 3·1; non-Sami women: 2·1, 1·3, 3·4).

There were no significant differences regarding overall DE comparing Sami with non-Sami, although Sami more often reported comfort eating. There were significant sex and ethnic differences related to DE and physical activity, snacking and education level.

To examine the association of water intake with risk of mortality from CVD.

Prospective cohort study.

A total of 22 939 men and 35 362 women aged 40–79 years enrolled in the Japan Collaborative Cohort (JACC) Study with available data regarding water intake from foods and beverages. The underlying causes of death were determined based on the International Classification of Diseases.

During the median 19·1 years of follow-up, 1637 men and 1707 women died from CVD. There was an inverse trend between high water intake and risk of CVD in both sexes. Compared with participants in the lowest quintile of water intake, the multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios (95 % CI) for mortality from total CVD in the highest quintile of water intake were 0·88 (0·72, 1·07; P for trend=0·03) in men and 0·79 (0·66, 0·95; P for trend=0·10) in women. Those for CHD were 0·81 (0·54, 1·21; P for trend=0·06) in men and 0·60 (0·39, 0·93; P for trend=0·20) in women. Reduced risk of mortality from ischaemic stroke was also observed among women in the highest water intake quintile: 0·70 (0·47, 0·99; P for trend=0·19). There was no association between water intake and mortality from haemorrhagic stroke in either sex.

Higher intake of fluids from foods and beverages was associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular mortality in both sexes and reduced risk of ischaemic stroke in women in Japan.

To explore determinants of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (s-25(OH)D) during autumn in young, Caucasian children not consuming vitamin D-fortified foods or supplements, and explore differences in sun behaviours between pre-school and school children.

In September–October, s-25(OH)D was measured by LC–MS/MS; physical activity, sun behaviours and vitamin D intake were assessed with questionnaires.

Baseline data from the ODIN Junior trial at 55°N.

Children aged 4–8 years (n 130), of whom 96% gave blood samples.

Mean s-25(OH)D was 56·8 (sd 12·5) nmol/l and positively associated with fat-free mass index (P=0·014). Children being active 6–7 h/week had 5·6 (95% CI 1·1, 10·0) nmol/l higher s-25(OH)D than less active children (P=0·014). Children seeking shade sometimes or rarely/never had 7·0 (95% CI 1·2, 12·9; P=0·018) and 7·2 (95% CI 0·8, 13·6; P=0·028) nmol/l higher s-25(OH)D, respectively, than children always/often seeking shade. Pre-school children had more sun-safe behaviour than school children in terms of use of a hat, sunscreen and sunscreen sun protection factor (P<0·05). In school but not pre-school children, using a hat rarely/never was associated with 12·1 (95% CI 2·5, 21·7; P=0·014) nmol/l higher s-25(OH)D v. always/often (Pinteraction=0·019). Vitamin D intake was not associated with s-25(OH)D (P=0·241).

Physical activity and sun behaviours are associated with s-25(OH)D in young children. Identifying factors influencing autumn s-25(OH)D is relevant to optimize levels before sun exposure diminishes. Strategies to reduce risk of inadequacy should consider risk of skin cancer and sunburn, and could include fortification and/or vitamin D supplementation.

The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of anaemia, iron deficiency (ID) and iron-deficiency anaemia (IDA) among female adolescents in the Gaza Strip, Palestine, as well as the risk factors involved in these conditions.

The study was conducted using the quantitative descriptive method with a cross-sectional design. Data were collected using an FFQ and sociodemographic, sedentary behaviour and physical activity questionnaires. Anthropometric measurements and blood analyses were also conducted.

The study population included all Palestinian female adolescents enrolled in secondary schools in the academic years 2015–2016. Five female secondary schools were selected randomly from five governorates of the Gaza Strip.

Female adolescents (n 330) aged 15–19 years in the selected secondary schools were enrolled randomly.

Prevalence of anaemia, ID and IDA among female adolescents in the Gaza Strip, Palestine, was 35·8, 40·3 and 26·0 %, respectively. A significant association (P<0·05) existed between ID, anaemia and IDA and dietary habits, including skipping breakfast and amount of junk food intake. Also, low consumption of fruits and vegetables was associated with IDA in the female adolescents. A statistically significant association was found between mother’s education and ID but not with the other sociodemographic factors.

The study shows that there is an alarming problem of anaemia and IDA in the Gaza Strip, Palestine. This may indicate that there are insufficient nutrition education programmes, particularly inside schools or by the mass media.

To examine exposure to energy drink marketing among youth and young adults, and test perceptions of energy drink advertisements (ads) regarding target audience age and promoting energy drink use during sports.

A between-group experiment randomly assigned respondents to view one of four energy drink ads (sport-themed or control) and assessed perceptions of the ad. Regression models examined marketing exposure and perceptions.

Online survey (2014).

Canadians aged 12–24 years (n 2040) from a commercial panel.

Overall, 83 % reported ever seeing energy drink ads through at least one channel, including on television (60 %), posters/signs in stores (49 %) and online (44 %). Across experimental conditions, most respondents (70·1 %) thought the ad they viewed targeted people their age or younger, including 42·2 % of those aged 12–14 years. Two sport-themed ads were more likely to be perceived as targeting a younger audience (adjusted OR (95 % CI): ‘X Games’ 36·5 %, 4·16 (3·00, 5·77); ‘snowboard’ 19·2 %, 1·50 (1·06, 2·13)) v. control (13·3 %). Participants were more likely to believe an ad promoted energy drink use during sports if they viewed any sport-themed ad (‘X Games’ 69·9 %, 8·29 (6·24, 11·02); ‘snowboard’ 76·7 %, 11·85 (8·82, 15·92); ‘gym’ 66·8 %, 7·29 (5·52, 9·64)) v. control (22·0 %). Greater reported exposure to energy drink marketing was associated with perceiving study ads as promoting energy drink use during sports.

Energy drink marketing has a high reach among young people. Ads for energy drinks were perceived as targeting youth and promoting use during sports. Such ads may be perceived as making physical performance claims, counter to Canadian regulations.