In China, medicinal plants enjoy an inherent and prominent role in the general health service. Due to excessive collection in the wild of rare and endangered plants, the natural resources of medicinal plants are depleting fast. In order to protect the medicinal plant resources, the Chinese government has implemented Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) programmes to cultivate the main popular medicinal plants in China. Thus far, around 800 GAP cultivation bases have been established nationwide and the total cultivation area of medicinal plants has reached 5000 km2. Besides GAP cultivation of medicinal plants, tissue cultural biotechnology has been applied to serve as an alternative for the supply of medicinal plant materials in China. Thus far, shoot production by tissue culture technology has been successful in medicinal plants such as Anoectochilus formosanus, Dalbergia odorifera, Dendrobium, Momordica grosvenorii, Pseudostellaria heterophylla and Taxus chinensis. In addition, the cell culture of Lithospermum erythrorhizon and Saussurea involucrata has been industrialized in 300–20,000-litre bioreactors. Besides the production of shoot and cell culture in bioreactors, tissue culture technology is also being practised for the conservation of rare medicinal plants.

Safflower is a traditional oilseed crop in the world. Its seed oil is a healthy edible oil containing high amount of unsaturated fatty acids. Genetically diverse exotic cultivars are valuable germplasm for introducing new diversity in safflower improvement programmes. In this study, we characterized safflower cultivars of India (30) and Mexico (23) comprising varieties, hybrids and advanced lines developed over 50 years for genetic distinctiveness using 38 simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci. Genetic diversity estimates across cultivar groups (total, India and Mexico) were as follows: mean number of alleles (3.2, 3.1, 2.6), expected heterozygosity (0.42, 0.37, 0.37) and polymorphism information content (0.36, 0.33, 0.32) respectively, which suggested narrow SSR allelic diversity within and between cultivar groups. However, distance-based cluster analysis (neighbour-joining tree) and model-based STRUCTURE analysis revealed that safflower cultivars of India and Mexico, with the exception of a few, form two genetically distinct groups. High level of genetic variation explained between the populations (40%) and Fst estimate (0.4) suggested that the cultivar groups were highly differentiated with limited gene flow supporting a strong genetic structuring. High oil (~38%) and high oleic (73–79%) contents of a subset of Mexican safflower varieties and advanced lines were confirmed in field trials in India. These exotic sources from Mexico are valuable for safflower breeding programmes in India to develop new cultivars with high oil yielding potential and high oleic acid content, which is the current market demand.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important crop for developed as well as underdeveloped countries, especially those in the Indian sub-continent that contribute more than 60% to both the global area and global production. The harsh environmental conditions under which chickpeas are generally grown impose restrictions on the expression of genetic yield potential. In the present study, a number of different breeding approaches for the development of genotypes possessing multiple resistances to different biotic and abiotic stresses, coupled with enhanced productivity are reported. In one study, 90 genetically diverse genotypes (35 medium-sized desi types, 35 bold-seeded desi types, 10 medium-sized kabuli types and 10 bold-seeded kabuli types) were tested in several locations in the 2000–2002 seasons, under rainfed (dryland) conditions and with supplemental irrigation. The bold-seeded desi genotypes gave superior performance in the rainfed environment, while the bold-seeded kabuli genotypes outyielded the other cultivars under supplemental irrigation. From crosses between accessions from geographically diverse sources, crosses between lines carrying multiple disease resistances, and crosses between the cultivated chickpea and the wild species, C. reticulatum, 23 selections were tested for yield and resistance to multiple stresses at various locations in northern and central India. From the crosses between geographically diverse parents, six high-yielding kabuli genotypes with wide adaptation and drought tolerance were identified. Pyramiding genes for multiple resistances proved useful in identifying eight lines possessing multiple disease resistance. Introgressing wild genes generated nine genotypes with high yield potential, resistance to soil-borne diseases and adaptation to water-limited environments. We conclude that high productivity, multiple resistance and wide adaptability can be achieved simultaneously by using potentially complementary approaches.

Local upland rice germplasm is an invaluable resource for farmers who grow rice on acidic soils without flooding that benefits wetland rice. In this study, we evaluated the adaptation to soil acidity in common local upland rice varieties from an area with acidic soil in Thailand. Tolerance to hydrogen and aluminium (Al) toxicity was determined by measuring root growth, plant dry weight and phosphorus (P) uptake in aerated solution culture without the supplementation of Al (0 mg/l) at pH 7 and 4 and with the supplementation of 10, 20 and 30 mg Al/l at pH 4. The root growth of upland rice plants grown from farmers' seed was depressed less by Al than that of common wetland rice varieties. Pure-line genotypes of upland rice varieties were differentiated into several classes of Al tolerance, with frequency distribution of the classes that sometimes differed between the accessions of the same varieties. The effect of Al tolerance on root length was closely correlated with depression by Al in root dry weight and whole-plant P content. A source for adaptation to soil acidity for exploitation in the genetic improvement of aerobic and rainfed rice is clearly found among local upland rice varieties grown on acidic soils. However, the variation in tolerance to soil acidity within and among the seed lots of the same varieties maintained by individual farmers as well as among the varieties needs to be taken into consideration.

A civil war is being fought in Darfur in western Sudan that has resulted in a humanitarian disaster with large numbers of Sudanese refugees seeking a safe haven in neighbouring Chad. The conflict is largely ecological in origin and is based on competition for natural resources, including plant genetic resources. Western Sudan has relatively low rainfall and supports rainfed sedentary agriculture and nomadic pastoralism, and a range of domesticated plant species is grown under irrigation by seasonal watercourses. Nomadic pastoralist populations move their herds according to established routes of seasonally available range and pasture species. There has always been a delicate balance between the sedentary and nomadic ways of life that through careful use of water and plant genetic resources has maintained the ecology of the region in balance. Drought, deforestation, overpopulation and overgrazing have accelerated desert encroachment and have exerted huge pressures on the ecology of the region. Indigenous plant genetic resources, including many wild species used as famine foods, are the key to livelihoods in the region. The upsurge in violence has resulted in many farmers abandoning their farms and seed stocks. Social systems are disrupted and rehabilitation of agriculture will be very difficult. This article describes domesticated and wild plant genetic resources of southern Darfur and details their importance to livelihoods in the region.

Aegilops tauschii, the diploid progenitor of the wheat D-genome, is a valuable genetic resource for wheat breeders. In this study, we compared the efficiency of inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) (as an arbitrary technique) and start codon targeted (SCoT) (as a gene-targeting technique) markers in determining the genetic diversity and population structure of 90 accessions of Ae. tauschii. SCoT markers indicated the highest values for polymorphism information content, marker index and effective multiplex ratio compared to ISSR markers. The total genetic diversity (Ht) and genetic diversity within populations (Hs) parameters were comparably modest for the two marker systems. The results of the analysis of molecular variance showed that the genetic variation within populations was significantly higher than among them (ISSR: 92 versus 8%; SCoT: 88 versus 12%). Furthermore, SCoT markers discovered a high level of genetic differentiation among populations than ISSRs (0.19 versus 0.05), while the amount of gene flow detected by ISSR was higher than SCoT (2.13 versus 8.62). Cluster analysis and population structure of SCoT and ISSR data divided all investigated accessions into two and four main clusters, respectively. Our results revealed that SCoT and ISSR fingerprinting could be used to further molecular analysis in Ae. tauschii and other wild species. The high-genetic variability found in this study also indicates the valuable genetic potential present in the investigated Ae. tauschii germplasm, which could be utilized for future genetic analysis and linkage mapping in breeding programmes.

Wild soybean (Glycine soja) is a valuable genetic resource for soybean improvement. Seed composition profiles provide beneficial information for the effective conservation and utilization of wild soybeans. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the variation in free amino acid abundance in the seeds of wild soybean germplasm collected in Japan. The free amino acid content in the seeds from 316 accessions of wild soybean ranged from 0.965 to 5.987 mg/g seed dry weight (DW), representing a 6.2-fold difference. Three amino acids had the highest coefficient of variation (CV): asparagine (1.15), histidine (0.95) and glutamine (0.94). Arginine (0.775 mg/g DW) was the predominant amino acid in wild soybean seeds, whereas the least abundant seed amino acid was glutamine (0.008 mg/g DW). A correlation network revealed significant positive relationships among most amino acids. Wild soybean seeds from different regions of origin had significantly different levels of several amino acids. In addition, a significant correlation between latitude and longitude of the collection sites and the total free amino acid content of seeds was observed. Our study reports diverse phenotypic data on the free amino acid content in seeds of wild soybean resources collected from throughout Japan. This information will be useful in conservation programmes for Japanese wild soybean and for the selection of accessions with favourable characteristics in future legume crop improvement efforts.

The aim of this research was to use variance components to calculate total phenotypic variation for 12 vegetative and reproductive maize traits. A set of 59 accessions, belonging to nine Peruvian highland maize races, were grown at two consecutive planting seasons in 2 years at one inter-Andean site in northern Peru. The trial data provided a means for calculating the variance components using the restricted maximum-likelihood method. The variance components were assumed to be stable while the number of environments and replications varied to simulate phenotypic variation for each trait. The least number of environments and replications, which does not affect the precision of phenotyping, was selected for assessing each trait. Tabulated data provide the number of environments and replications that can be used as a reference for Peruvian highland trials to assess quantitative variation in plant and reproductive traits. The results suggest that fewer environments and replications are needed for reproductive than for plant traits because the former show higher heritability than vegetative traits.

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) seed harvested while it is immature is a nutritious vegetable and forms a substitute for green pea [Pisum sativum (L.)]. Using the characterization data of more than 12,000 accessions conserved at ICRISAT genebank, Patancheru, India, 105 accessions were selected for important traits of vegetable pigeonpea (mature pod length>6 cm, seeds per pod>5 and 100-seed weight>15 g) and evaluated for these traits during 2007–08. From the initial evaluation, 51 accessions were identified as vegetable type and further evaluated for traits of vegetable pigeonpea during 2008–09 to identify most promising accessions. ICP 13831 produced longest immature pods (10.3 cm), ICP 13828 had maximum number of seeds per pod (5.9) and ICP 12746 produced larger seeds (44.8 g/100 seeds). Highest percentage of total soluble sugars (9.7%) was recorded in immature seeds of ICP 13413. ICP 15143 followed by ICP 15186 recorded more dry pods per plant and seed yield per plant. Performance of ICP 12184, ICP 13413, ICP 14085 and ICP 15169 was better than that of the best control for pod length, seeds per pod, soluble sugars and protein content. Cluster analysis based on scores of first five principal components resulted in three clusters that differed significantly for days to 50% flowering, days to 75% maturity, shelling percentage and soluble sugars. Important traits of vegetable pigeonpea such as immature pod length, seeds per pod, seed soluble sugars and protein content had shown strong positive correlation. Caribbean and Eastern Africa were found as the best source regions for vegetable pigeonpea. Evaluation of selected accessions at potential locations in different countries was suggested to identify vegetable pigeonpeas suitable for different regions and for use in crop improvement programs.

Global food security could be imperilled by the combined pressures from the effects of continually evolving climatic conditions, demographics and other socio-economic factors, the demands of the livestock, bioenergy and fibre industries for food-based substrates, the static or decreasing availability of natural resources for agriculture and the impracticality of increased use of economically and environmentally costly agricultural inputs. The optimal harnessing of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) in manners that translate their repertoire of hidden potentials into significantly enhanced crop productivities has been severally identified as crucial to achieving the required considerably significant increases in food production. The scope of the problems and the plausible means for addressing them compel the devising of novel and more efficient ways for deploying PGRFA in need-based crop improvement programmes. We posit a continuum approach to the management of PGRFA which links seamlessly the effective conservation and access to PGRFA through their use in developing superior and resilient crop varieties to the provision of their high-quality seeds and planting materials to the growers. To achieve the mainstreaming of this paradigm, we propose the institutionalization of overarching national PGRFA strategies that prescribe result-oriented action plans spanning above three components of the management of PGRFA for a country's priority crops. We also describe the strategy as a means for identifying and assigning responsibilities to critical stakeholders and providing for the governance of all aspects of PGRFA activities over specific time frames. Steps to developing and adopting a national PGRFA strategy are also suggested.

The 17 Brazilian species of Adesmia DC were analysed, using 20 primers, with regard to their randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) patterns. From a total of 357 individuals analysed, the 20 primers produced 2249 fragments with molecular sizes ranging from 200 to 2700 bp, 56% of which were polymorphic. Average intra-population genetic similarity, estimated by Jaccard's coefficient, ranged from 0.35 in A. araujoi to 0.80 in A. punctata. Mean intra-specific genetic similarity varied greatly among species, ranging from 0.19 for A. tristis to 0.89 for A. arillata. Mean genetic similarity among the species, estimated by Dice's coefficient, was 0.56. RAPD markers were efficient at separating all the accessions analysed. The results obtained generally agreed with the partition of genetic variability expected according to the mode of reproduction.

The genebank at ICRISAT, India that serves as a world repository for sorghum germplasm conserves 39,234 accessions from 93 countries, including 6249 from seven South Asian countries: Afghanistan (6), Bangladesh (9), India (6101), the Maldives (10), Nepal (8), Pakistan (90) and Sri Lanka (25). A total of 5340 georeferenced accessions were used to identify gaps, and 5322 accessions that were characterized at ICRISAT were used to assess the diversity in the collection. Accessions of basic races varied widely than those of intermediate races for flowering in the postrainy season, plant height in both rainy and postrainy seasons, panicle exsertion, panicle length and width, seed size and 100 seed weight. Landraces from India were late flowering, tall and produced stout panicles and larger seeds. Landraces from Pakistan flowered early in both seasons and produced stout panicles and those from Sri Lanka were late flowering and tall in both seasons, produced more basal tillers and stout panicles. A total of 110 districts in 20 provinces of India, 13 districts in three provinces of Pakistan, three districts in Bangladesh and five districts in four provinces of Sri Lanka were identified as geographical gaps. Sorghum bicolor subsp. verticilliflorum, S. halepense and S. propinquum were identified as taxonomic gaps in the collection. Therefore, it is suggested to explore the districts identified as gaps to enrich the variability in the world collection of sorghum at ICRISAT.

Acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) inhibiting herbicides have played a significant role in effective weed control in the cultivation of sunflower since their discovery. The development of sunflower lines and hybrids resistant to these herbicides made their post-emergence application possible. In this study, wild Helianthus species were screened phenotypically for imidazolinone (IMI) and sulfonylurea (SU) resistance by herbicide spray and for allelic variations at Ahasl1 (Ahas1 large subunit) locus using simple sequence repeat and single nucleotide polymorphism markers. Helianthus praecox accession 1823 plants showed promising resistance to three classes of SU-based herbicides and Helianthus nuttallii accession NUT05 plants remained green for a longer time after imazethapyr spray. A total of 50 accessions belonging to 21 wild Helianthus species of different ploidy levels were analysed for allelic variation along with some parents of commercial sunflower hybrids. None of the wild species showed the resistant allele (Ahasl1-1) similar to SCG101 (IMI-resistant line), although it is present in some of the parental lines of hybrids. However, the parental lines having Ahasl1-1-type allele failed to survive the field dose of imazethapyr spray. Inter-species and inter-accessional allelic variation could be observed among the species. PRA1823 and NUT05 showed repeat length variations at Ahasl1 locus. Sequencing of full length Ahasl1 gene from both these accessions did not reveal any resistance mutations in the protein sequences. The molecular basis of the phenotypes identified in this study could be explored further and utilized in breeding programmes for imparting herbicide resistance in cultivated hybrids across sunflower growing regions of the world.

Cereal crops are one of the most widely consumed and most valuable crops for humankind. The species have been domesticated for over 10,000 years and as such have lost much of the genetic diversity that is present within their wild relatives. Future breeding efforts will require the use of genetic diversity from crop wild relatives (CWRs) to help improve our cereal crops. This study aims to identify an in situ conservation network within the Mediterranean Basin and west Asia for the four cereal crops, barley (Hordeum L.), oat (Avena L.), rye (Secale L.) and wheat (Aegilops L., Amblyopyrum L., Triticum L.). This region is a centre of diversity for these taxa and an area of potentially high genetic diversity, which if left unprotected will not be available for plant breeders to utilize in the future. Presence point data for a total of 90 taxa were collected from GBIF and resulted in 76,343 individual presence points across the 44 countries in the study region. Geographic Information System (GIS) software was used to identify potential in situ reserve networks per crop genepool and for all crops combined. Results indicate a network of 10 locations across the region which would protect over 80% of the taxa. The number one priority reserve is found within the Fertile Crescent region on the border of Israel, Syria and Jordan. This proposed reserve location contains 93 currently protected areas (i.e. National Parks) and as such, it may only be necessary to alter management plans to effectively protect CWR populations. For taxa not found within protected areas ex situ conservation may be more appropriate and should be implemented as a backup to the in situ reserve network.

A diverse set of 107 rice genotypes was evaluated for yield, shattering and dormancy traits. Analysis of variance revealed sizable variation while skewness and kurtosis values indicated near-normal distribution for most of the traits, thus quantitative nature controlled by many genes. A highly significant deviation from a normal distribution for dormancy and shattering % indicated their qualitative nature of inheritance. Four promising genotypes ‘IRGC1723’ (early with 65 days to flowering), ‘IRGC 11108’ and ‘RNR 15459’ (high grain number – 358 and low average shattering – <5%), ‘RNR 11718’ (high single plant yield – 56.73 g, low average shattering – <5% and dormancy period – 21 days) are identified. A significant positive correlation between shattering and dormancy confirms inter-relationship among domestication-related characteristics. The principal component analysis revealed the contribution of four PCs to maximum variability and hierarchical clustering grouped the genotypes into 18 divergent clusters. Five cultivars (Karimnagar Samba, Sheetal, PR 121, Pranahitha and Jagitial Samba) with a combination of low shattering ability (3.35–5.7%) and considerable dormancy period (13–20 days) falling in the same cluster can be used as donors for the improvement of rice genotypes with low shattering ability and incorporating a considerable period of dormancy so as to avoid pre-harvest sprouting due to delayed harvesting. Further, they can be crossed with ‘Pratyumna’ having less than 1 week dormancy period, a genotype of the cluster XVII with which they have a maximum genetic divergence of 51.4 and may serve as parents in the development of mapping populations for the identification of QTLs/genes for shattering and dormancy traits.

The goal of most rice improvement programs is the enhancement of farmers’ yield using less land and limited water. This study evaluated 77 upland rice genotypes under optimal upland growing conditions in the field and ranked the genotypes using base indices. Subsequently, eighteen cultivars selected from the field trial were screened under drought in rainout-shelter conditions. The traits evaluated for index selection were yield, days to flowering, plant height, number of panicles and filled grains. Under field conditions, based on the sum of economic weight assigned to five traits used to compute the selection index, IR 68704-145-1-1-B and IR 63380-16 were the best genotypes. In the rainout-shelter experiment, Ofada 2 (508 gm−2) had the highest grain yield under non-stress conditions while ITA 117 (152.38 gm−2) had the highest grain yield under drought stress. The base index was efficient for selecting superior genotypes with the best combination for all the traits considered. Susceptibility to drought stress of the landraces leads to poor grain yield.

The presence of excessive phytic acids in foods exerts undesirable antinutritional effects while their agricultural product is utilized as food for humans and as fodder for animals. In this study, 40 cultivated groundnut genotypes were grown in two years and used to estimate the phytic acid phosphorus (PAP) and inorganic phosphorus (InP) contents. The PAP content differed significantly (P= 0.01) among the genotypes and ranged from 149.3 to 315.0 mg PAP/100 g seed with an average of 227.6 mg PAP/100 g seed. The genotypes TG 17 and TG 67 had the highest (315 mg) and the lowest (149.3 mg) PAP content, respectively. The InP content ranged from 58.7 mg/100 g seed in the SG 99 genotype to 102.6 mg/100 g seed in the TG 40 genotype, with a mean of 82.6 mg/100 g seed. The ratio of InP to PAP varied from 0.24 to 0.56. A significantly higher InP:PAP ratio was found in the genotypes TKG 19A, TAG 24, TG 37A, TBG 39 (TDG 39), TG 51, TG 67 and GG 7, which was due to either an increase in InP content or a decrease in PAP content.

Zingiber barbatum Wall. (family Zingiberaceae), is an underutilized medicinal plant and commonly known as ‘Meik tha-lin’ in Myanmar where it is used in the indigenous system of medicine. In the present study, 19 accessions of Z. barbatum from five provinces in Myanmar have been utilized to characterize and assess genetic diversity. Twenty-nine morphological characters were noted, including growth habit, leaf, pseudo-stem and rhizome characters. Fifteen primer sets of P450-based analogue (PBA) markers were used to reveal molecular characteristics. Of the 29 morphological characters, 22 showed a high degree of variation within wild ginger accessions, whereas 20 of these characters contributed significantly to morphological variation. Eleven amplified primer sets gave a total of 175 bands and exhibited 92.15% polymorphism across Z. barbatum accessions. Based on morphological characters and PBA markers, 19 accessions can be divided into two morphotype groups with comparatively higher genetic diversity. This information can be applied in future crop improvement, proper conservation and better use of this underutilized medicinal species.

Terminal-repeat retrotransposon in miniature (TRIM) elements are a miniature form of retrotransposons and play an important role in genome organization. The Cassandra TRIM family has been identified in over 50 plant species, including both monocots and dicots. Cassandra elements carry an independently transcribed 5S RNA sequence in their terminal repeat regions, which is unique compared with other TRIM families. Although the existence of Cassandra elements has been documented in many plants, much work remains to characterize Cassandra family members and elucidate their distribution. In this study, we comparatively analysed the Cassandra family members in the Brassica oleracea, B. rapa and Arabidopsis thaliana genomes. A total of 602, 451 and 173 members, of which 130, 60 and 9 were relatively intact, were identified from the B. oleracea, B. rapa and A. thaliana genomes, respectively. Most of the Cassandra elements (1120/1226) were found in intergenic spaces, but 106 elements were inserted in genic regions such as introns, exons and untranslated regions. Our comparative analysis of the Cassandra family members in A. thaliana, B. rapa and B. oleracea reveals that some Cassandra elements have been commonly retained during the last 20 million years in three species and some elements have been uniquely evolved in Brassica species. This study promotes our understanding of the role and utility of Cassandra elements in the evolution of the Brassicaceae family.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important food legume crop grown mostly in Asia and Africa as well as in other parts of the world, and serves as an important source of protein in the diets of vegetarian people. Lot of variation in grain quality traits has been observed in cultivated chickpea in both desi and Kabuli types. It has often been observed that seeds with smaller size have more protein when compared with those with larger size. The joint dependence of these two traits on the same primary characteristics results in this negative relationship. This negative correlation coupled with breeding efforts aimed at increasing grain yield has hampered the progress of improving these two traits simultaneously. Therefore, a germplasm exhibiting wider variability for these quantitative traits is an important resource for the identification of novel alleles. Herein, we report the wide variation observed for five important quantitative traits including days to flowering, days to maturity, plant height, 100-seed weight and protein content, and also report the significant positive correlation observed between 100-seed weight and protein content in a diverse collection of chickpea germplasm comprising both desi and Kabuli types.