The method in which the mortality in childhood varies from age to age is a matter of very considerable interest. With each increase of unhygienic circumstances the death-rate among infants is well known to rise and it is commonly taken as a criterion of the measure of the unheathiness of the environment. In a rough way this is quite true but it is not the only criterion, any year of life might equally well be taken. The investigation in this note is based on a tabulation mande from the data published by the Registrar-General of England for the decade 1891–1900. In order tp make the statistics as homogeneous as possible the registration districts have been grouped accroding to the infantile mortalites, intervals of ten being taken in the unit. Thus those districts with death-rates between 80 and 90 have had their populations and deaths grouped togeather, those between 90 and 100 likewise and so on.

In earlier reports on the physique of Oxford undergraduates attending the pilot student health service from 1947 to 1950 emphasis was laid on body shape. Parnell (1952) pointed out the tendency for centrally placed Sheldonian somato-types, that is those with more balanced mid-range body proportions, to occur more frequently in the Oxford sample than in American universities, a tendency incidentally which advances further according to the level of university performance attained. Tanner (1952) emphasized the tendency for Oxford students to show less mesomorphy, that is muscle and bone development, than American students but he reports a comment from Sheldon himself that the distribution at Harvard resembled the Oxford distribution more closely. This approach, by the analysis of body shape, to the problem of physical characteristics accompanying academic selection is of particular interest, but in calculating the somatotype, height is deliberately ignored by being placed as the denominator of all the body proportions employed. Height, however, is an index of body size, as opposed to body shape, and has an importance of its own. This report concerns observations on Oxford undergraduates in which more attention is paid to body size, and particular attention also to variation of weight during university residence.

An outbreak in May 1937 of about 130 cases of mild Sonne dysentery with no deaths. The outbreak was spread by ice-cream made under very unsatisfactory conditions, but no carrier case or specific source of infection ascertained. The very scattered nature of the outbreak, involving five different sanitary areas, with place of preparation in a sixth, is a feature of interest.

Before the foundation in 1893 of the Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology by the late Professor Sir G. Sims Woodhead, there was no English journal devoted to pathology, bacteriology and kindred subjects. In 1901 Professor G. H. F. Nuttall founded the Journal of Hygiene, the second English journal of this type, and edited it till his death in December 1937. Owing to the increasing number of papers on parasitological subjects, which he received for publication in this journal, he founded Parasitology in 1908 and was its chief editor till 1933. He was very proud of both journals, and for some years made himself personally responsible for the heavy expenses of production. Within a few years of its foundation each began to pay for itself, and afterwards both were taken over by the Cambridge University Press.

A comparative examination of the hippocampus and mid-brain in a series of 37 brains from suspected rabid animals has shown the marked superiority of the hippocampus as the site of election for Negri bodies.

The possibility that the prevalence of diseases in which there is no specific causal organism may be affected by the prevalence of other diseasses of a contagious nature is well recognised. Even in the early days of bactriology interrelationships between infectious diseases and puerperal septicaemia were suspected on purely statistical grounds. Longstaff (1891), for example, pointed out the remarkably close correlation between the seasonal variations and the secular trends of the mortalities of erysipelas and childbed fever—a relationship so close that he “found it difficult to avoid the conclusion that they were both due to the one poison.” A somewhat similar but less striking association was shown with other inflammatory diseases, such as pyaemia, scarlet fever, “rheumatism of the heart or pericardium” and diphtheria. Even more emphatic were the views of Minor (quoted by Longstaff) who, with reference to the association between erysipelas and puerperal fever, gave reasons for the belief that there existed an intimate connection between them, and that “in any place where erysipelas is found, there will be found puerperal fever.”

Hepatitis E virus infection is a major cause of acute hepatitis, typically self-limiting but occasionally leading to liver failure. Understanding disease progression factors could inform prevention strategies. This study aimed to analyse the characteristics of a large cohort of hospitalised hepatitis E patients in Tianjin, China, and explore factors influencing their progression to liver failure. A total of 1279 hospitalised patients with hepatitis E were included in this cross-sectional study in Tianjin, China. Student's t-test and the Mann–Whitney U-test were used for comparisons. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to explore the association. Among these 1279 patients, 107 (8.4%) developed liver failure. Patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.150–2.887, p = 0.011), liver cirrhosis (95% [CI] 2.229–7.224, p < 0.001), and hepatitis B (95% [CI] 1.159–4.512, p = 0.017) were more likely to progress to liver failure. Hepatitis E patients with comorbid DM, liver cirrhosis, or hepatitis B virus co-infection have higher risks of developing liver failure. Hepatitis E vaccination may be recommended for these vulnerable patients to curb disease severity.

1. The diphtheria antitoxin titres of several thousand samples of cord blood have been analysed with relation to the histories of the mothers.

2. Among mothers without histories of diphtheria or of immunization those born in 1933 or later showed a higher degree of natural immunity.

3. The distribution of antitoxin titres among mothers who had suffered from diphtheria was similar to the average distribution among the unimmunized.

4. The differences in proportions with any antitoxin in different groups of unimmunized mothers were almost entirely made up of those with titres above 0·04 and below 1·0 unit per ml.

5. Among the artificially immunized mothers there were many more with low titres, i.e. below 0·04, and a few more with high titres, i.e. over 1·0, than among the unimmunized.

6. Mothers immunized between the ages of 9 and 14 with the peak at 11 or 12 years showed the highest immunity rate.

7. The greatest number of high titres occurred among recovered cases subsequently immunized.

1. Many horses immunised against other bacteria or bacterial products will give a large local reaction to mallein, but this is usually not associated with a rise in temperature. In the case of horses injected with diphtheria toxin, the size of the swelling appears to related to the degree of immunity attained. This point has not yet been established in the case of horses immunised against other bacterial products.

2. This local reaction disappears rapidly and can thus be distinguished from the reaction in the case of glandered horses.

3. In the few cases when a rise in temperature took place (3 cases out of 56) the curve was markedly different from that obtained in the case of glandered animals.

4. Other bacterial products react similarly to mallein upon immune horses.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) officially reports low coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) prevalence. This cross-sectional study, conducted between September and November 2021, assessed the COVID-19 seroprevalence in people attending Goma’s two largest markets, Kituku and Virunga. A similar study in a slum of Bukavu overlapped for 1 month using identical methods. COVID-19-unvaccinated participants (n = 796 including 454 vendors and 342 customers, 60% of whom were women) were surveyed. The median age of vendors and customers was 34.2 and 30.1 years, respectively. The crude and adjusted anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody seroprevalence rates were 70.2% (95% CI 66.9–73.4%) and 98.8% (95% CI 94.1–100%), respectively, with no difference between vendors and customers. COVID-19 symptoms reported by survey participants in the previous 6 months were mild or absent in 58.9% and 41.1% of participants with anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, respectively. No COVID-19-seropositive participants reported hospitalisation in the last 6 months. These findings are consistent with those reported in Bukavu. They confirm that SARS-CoV-2 spread without causing severe symptoms in densely populated settlements and markets and suggest that many COVID-19 cases went unreported. Based on these results, the relevance of an untargeted hypothetical vaccination programme in these communities should be questioned.

Transmission of varicella occurs frequently in schools and households. We investigated the characteristics of varicella cases derived from within-household transmission and the modes of varicella transmission between school and household settings in Shanghai, China, from 2009 to 2018. Within-household transmission occurred in 278 households, of which 134 transmission events were between children. Sixty-one household varicella transmission events may be attributed to isolation procedures for infected students during school outbreaks, and 7.6% of school outbreaks were caused by schoolchildren cases derived from within-household transmission. The frequency of ‘school-household-school’ transmission adds an additional layer of complexity to the control of school varicella outbreaks. Administration of varicella vaccine as post-exposure prophylaxis after exposure is considered to be an effective measure to control varicella spread within households and schools.

Salmonella is a leading cause of foodborne outbreaks in Taiwan. On 27 April 2018, a salmonellosis outbreak among customers of a restaurant was reported to the Taiwan CDC. We investigated the outbreak to identify infection sources and prevent further transmission. We interviewed ill customers and their dining companions. We conducted a case-control study to identify foods associated with the illness. Case-patients were those who had diarrhoea within 72 h after eating at the restaurant during 16–27 April 2018. Specimens, food samples and environmental samples were collected and tested for enteric pathogens. Salmonella isolates were analysed with pulse-field gel electrophoresis and whole-genome sequencing. We inspected the restaurant sanitation and reviewed kitchen surveillance camera recordings. We identified 47 case-patients, including one decedent. Compared with 44 controls, case-patients were more likely to have had a French toast sandwich (OR: 102.4; 95% CI: 18.7–952.3). Salmonella Enteritidis isolates from 16 case-patients shared an indistinguishable genotype. Camera recordings revealed eggshell contamination, long holding time at room temperature and use of leftovers during implicated food preparation. Recommendations for restaurant egg-containing food preparation are to use pasteurised egg products and ensure a high enough cooking temperature and long enough cooking time to prevent Salmonella contamination.

Tuberculin testing of 176 personnel in a Liverpool hospital showed a total incidence of 68 % negative reactors. This remarkably high percentage was similar for each of the various groups of workers tested. We did not find the Tine test to be a satisfactory method of screening for tuberculin sensitivity because 30% were doubtful reactors. In these, further tuberculin testing by the Mantoux reagent was always positive.

The aim of this study was to investigate the epidemiology of influenza A virus infection in Cyprus from the 2009 pandemic until 2013. Pandemic influenza A(H1N1)2009 virus infections outnumbered infections with other respiratory viruses until the end of 2009. The pandemic virus was also the prevalent influenza strain during influenza season 2010–2011; however, it was completely replaced by H3N2 subtype in the next season. During the most recent influenza season, 2012–2013, the pandemic strain was once again the only influenza A virus circulating in Cyprus. Full-length neuraminidase gene sequencing revealed mutations that had previously been identified as permissive. No significant difference in the expression of the IFN-inducible genes OAS and IFIT1 were observed. The phylogenetic analysis of the neuraminidase gene sequences revealed a picture of continuous importation of influenza strains in the island of Cyprus with local circulation playing only a minor role in determining the prevalent strain of the next influenza season.

Available data suggest that the immunogenicity of COVID-19 vaccines might decrease in the immunocompromised population, but data on vaccine immunogenicity and safety among people living with HIV (PLWH) are still lacking. The purpose of this meta-analysis is to compare the immunogenicity and safety of COVID-19 vaccines in PLWH with healthy controls. We comprehensively searched the following databases: PubMed, Cochrane Library, and EMBASE. The risk ratio (RR) of seroconversion after the first and second doses of a COVID-19 vaccine was separately pooled using random-effects meta-analysis. Seroconversion rate was lower among PLWH compared with healthy individuals after the first (RR = 0.77, 95% confident interval (CI) 0.64–0.92) and second doses (RR = 0.97, 95%CI 0.95–0.99). The risk of total adverse reactions among PLWH is similar to the risk in the healthy group, after the first (RR = 0.87, 95%CI 0.70–1.10) and second (RR = 0.83, 95%CI 0.65–1.07) doses. This study demonstrates that the immunogenicity and safety of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in fully vaccinated HIV-infected patients were generally satisfactory. A second dose was related to seroconversion enhancement. Therefore, we considered that a booster dose may provide better seroprotection for PLWH. On the basis of a conventional two-dose regimen for COVID-19 vaccines, the booster dose is very necessary.

After a single subcutaneous injection into baboons the MRC-4 strain of trachoma/inclusion conjunctivitis (TRIC) agent underwent limited multiplication at the injection site, but was then eliminated rapidly from the skin and regional lymph nodes. Forty-eight hours after a single intravenous injection, but not thereafter, it appeared in the peripheral lymph nodes and spleen. The single parenteral injections failed to immunize baboons against conjunctival challenge with the homologous strain. These findings contrasted with those previously reported for the more virulent mutant, MRC-4 f, which multiplied readily in the skin, lymph nodes and spleen, persisted in these tissues up to 3 weeks after injection, and conferred good immunity to conjunctival challenge with MRC-4. The difference in behaviour of MRC-4 and MRC-4 f might be accounted for, at least in part, by the use of a smaller inoculum of live MRC-4; but similar findings in guinea-pigs, reported elsewhere, suggest that the differences observed are real. In conjunction with previous work, the present study suggests that the immunogenicity of TRIC agent is closely related to the mass of antigen that can be administered to or propagated within the recipient.

We are grateful to Mr D. Venters for his able technical assistance.

This study aims to understand the epidemiological characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the paediatric population during the outbreak of the Omicron variant in Shanghai. We retrospectively analysed the population-based epidemiological characteristics and clinical outcome of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant infection in children in Minhang District, Shanghai, based on the citywide surveillance system during the outbreak period in 2022 (March to May). During this time, a total of 63,969 cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection were notified in Minhang District, out of which 4,652 (7.3%) were children and adolescents <18 years. The incidence rate of SARS-CoV-2 infections in children was 153 per 10,000. Of all paediatric cases, 50% reported to be clinically symptomatic within 1–3 days after PCR confirmation by parents or themselves, with 36.3% and 18.9% of paediatric cases reporting fever and cough. Also, 58.4% of paediatric cases had received at least one dose of the COVID-19 vaccine and 52.1% had received two doses of the COVID-19 vaccination. Our findings are informative for the implementation of appropriate measures to protect children from the threat of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

The incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated infections is increasing, but it remains to be defined whether any change in the seroprevalence of C. difficile has also occurred. In a population-based study of the general adult population, 734 subjects, aged 15–69 years, were examined on two occasions 8 years apart (1990 and 1998) for the presence of antibodies against C. difficile in serum. The overall seroprevalence of C. difficile increased significantly from 19% in 1990 to 27% in 1998 (P<0·0001). The seroprevalence increased with increasing age in both 1990 and 1998, but the increase was about four times higher in 1998 than in 1990. In conclusion, the observed increase in seroprevalence suggests a higher exposure to C. difficile in the general Danish adult population.

Unadapted bovine ephemeral fever (BEF) virus was isolated from cattle blood after intravenous inoculation into chicken embryos. Infected embryos died or hatched as abnormal chickens. The chick embryo was slightly less sensitive to unadapted BEF virus than were Vero cell cultures, but the use of embryos avoids the several blind passages that are required to isolate BEF virus in unweaned mice. Chick embryos were considerably less efficient than Vero cell culture or unweaned mice in detecting Vero cell-adapted and mouse-adapted BEF virus respectively.

Viraemia was demonstrated in chicken embryos at 1–4 days and in one-day-old chickens at 1–3 days after intravenous inoculation of BEF virus. BEF virus was demonstrated by isolation and by immunofluoresence in heart, brain, lung and liver of chicken embryos at 1–5 days and in lung and liver of one-day-old chickens at 1–2 days, after intravenous inoculation. The isolated viruses were confirmed as BEF virus by neutralization with immune mouse ascitic fluid. BEF neutralizing antibodies were produced in 4-week-old and adult chickens after intravenous inoculation with BEF virus.

This study included all patients, with known HIV-1 status, admitted to hospital over a 5-year period with serum ferritin values exceeding 1500 μg/l. Markedly elevated serum ferritin levels are associated with a host of causes which poses a diagnostic dilemma, as the aetiology is often highly dependent on local epidemiology. We evaluated patients' records retrospectively to determine underlying causes of possible hyperferritinaemia. Aetiologies associated with hyperferritinaemia varied significantly depending on HIV-1 status. In patients infected with the HIV-1 virus, infectious causes predominated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis accounting for more than 50% of the patient population with an odds ratio of 17·98 (95% confidence interval 8·31–38·88) in HIV-positive compared to HIV-negative patients. Of the HIV-1-negative patients, hereditary haemochromatosis accounted for less than 2% of patients and chronic renal failure was the most common diagnosis. The finding of hyperferritinaemia should prompt determination of HIV-1 status, as this impacts significantly on aetiological epidemiology. In HIV-1-positive patients, aggressive investigation for mycobacterial infection should be undertaken in cases of combined hyperferritinaemia and positive HIV-1 serology.