In the present study, we investigated whether n-6 and n-3 long-chain PUFA (LC-PUFA) concentrations in cord blood (CB) serum are associated with BMI up to 10 years of age, after accounting for LC-PUFA composition at 2, 6 and 10 years. The study was based on 388 participants of the German LISAplus (Influence of Lifestyle-Related Factors on the Immune System and the Development of Allergies in Childhood Plus the Influence of Traffic Emissions and Genetics) birth cohort study carried out in Munich. BMI was measured at 2, 6 and 10 years of age. Serum phospholipid fatty acid concentrations were measured by GC in CB and in blood collected at 2, 6 and 10 years of age. The association between n-3 LC-PUFA and n-6 LC-PUFA concentrations and n-6:n-3 LC-PUFA ratio in CB serum glycerophospholipids and BMI z-scores was assessed using linear mixed models adjusted for LC-PUFA composition at follow-up and potential confounders. Interaction terms between time of follow-up and LC-PUFA concentrations in CB were included. There was no consistent association between n-6 and n-3 LC-PUFA concentrations in CB and BMI over time. However, there was a significant interaction between n-6:n-3 LC-PUFA ratio in CB and time of follow-up with respect to BMI (P= 0·0415): a negative effect at 2 years; no effect at 6 years; a positive effect at 10 years. BMI up to 10 years of age may be influenced by the n-6:n-3 ratio in CB serum glycerophospholipids in a time-varying fashion. The present results thereby highlight the importance of considering age when examining associations between fatty acid concentrations and BMI.

Current evidence suggests that regenerative v. degenerative endothelial responses can be integrated in a clinical endothelial phenotype, reflecting the net result between damage from risk factors and endogenous repair capacity. We have previously shown that a cocoa flavanol (CF) intervention can improve endothelial function and increase the regenerative capacity of the endothelium by mobilising circulating angiogenic cells in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). The aim of the present study was to investigate whether CF can lower the levels of circulating endothelial microparticles (EMP), markers of endothelial integrity, along with improvements in endothelial function. The levels of EMP in the frozen plasma samples of CAD patients were measured along with endothelial function (flow-mediated vasodilation, FMD); n 16, FMD data published previously), and these data were compared with those of young (n 12) and age-matched (n 12) healthy control subjects. The CAD patients exhibited significantly increased levels of EMP along with impaired FMD when compared with the healthy control subjects. The levels of CD144+ and CD31+/41− EMP were inversely correlated with FMD (r − 0·67, P= 0·01 and r − 0·59, P= 0·01, respectively). In these CAD patients, the levels of EMP were measured after they had consumed a drink containing 375 mg of CF (high-CF intervention, HiFI) or 9 mg of CF (macro- and micronutrient-matched low-CF control, LoFl) twice daily over a 30-d period in a randomised, double-blind, cross-over study. After 1 month of HiFI, the levels of CD31+/41− and CD144+ EMP decreased ( − 25 and − 23 %, respectively), but not after LoFl. Our data show that flavanols lower the levels of EMP along with higher endothelial function, lending evidence to the novel concept that flavanols may improve endothelial integrity.

Micronutrient deficiencies and suboptimal energy intake are widespread in rural Kenya, with detrimental effects on child growth and development. Sporadic school feeding programmes rarely include animal source foods (ASF). In the present study, a cluster-randomised feeding trial was undertaken to determine the impact of snacks containing ASF on district-wide, end-term standardised school test scores and nutrient intake. A total of twelve primary schools were randomly assigned to one of three isoenergetic feeding groups (a local plant-based stew (githeri) with meat, githeri plus whole milk or githeri with added oil) or a control group receiving no intervention feeding. After the initial term that served as baseline, children were fed at school for five consecutive terms over two school years from 1999 to 2001. Longitudinal analysis was used controlling for average energy intake, school attendance, and baseline socio-economic status, age, sex and maternal literacy. Children in the Meat group showed significantly greater improvements in test scores than those in all the other groups, and the Milk group showed significantly greater improvements in test scores than the Plain Githeri (githeri+oil) and Control groups. Compared with the Control group, the Meat group showed significant improvements in test scores in Arithmetic, English, Kiembu, Kiswahili and Geography. The Milk group showed significant improvements compared with the Control group in test scores in English, Kiswahili, Geography and Science. Folate, Fe, available Fe, energy per body weight, vitamin B12, Zn and riboflavin intake were significant contributors to the change in test scores. The greater improvements in test scores of children receiving ASF indicate improved academic performance, which can result in greater academic achievement.

Accurate and easy-to-use methods to assess free-living energy expenditure in response to physical activity in young children are scarce. In the present study, we evaluated the capacity of (1) 4 d recordings obtained using the Actiheart (mean heart rate (mHR) and mean activity counts (mAC)) to provide assessments of total energy expenditure (TEE) and activity energy expenditure (AEE) and (2) a 7 d activity diary to provide assessments of physical activity levels (PAL) using three sets of metabolic equivalent (MET) values (PALTorun, PALAdolph and PALAinsworth) in forty-four and thirty-one healthy Swedish children aged 1·5 and 3 years, respectively. Reference TEE, PALref and AEE were measured using criterion methods, i.e. the doubly labelled water method and indirect calorimetry. At 1·5 years of age, mHR explained 8 % (P= 0·006) of the variation in TEE above that explained by fat mass and fat-free mass. At 3 years of age, mHR and mAC explained 8 (P= 0·004) and 6 (P= 0·03) % of the variation in TEE and AEE, respectively, above that explained by fat mass and fat-free mass. At 1·5 and 3 years of age, average PALAinsworth values were 1·44 and 1·59, respectively, and not significantly different from PALref values (1·39 and 1·61, respectively). By contrast, average PALTorun (1·5 and 3 years) and PALAdolph (3 years) values were lower (P< 0·05) than the corresponding PALref values. In conclusion, at both ages, Actiheart recordings explained a small but significant fraction of free-living energy expenditure above that explained by body composition variables, and our activity diary produced mean PAL values in agreement with reference values when using MET values published by Ainsworth.

There are few epidemiological data on the dietary risk factors of Barrett's oesophagus, a precursor of oesophageal adenocarcinoma. The present study investigated the association between vegetable, fruit and nitrate intake and Barrett's oesophagus risk in a large prospective cohort. The Netherlands Cohort Study recruited 120 852 individuals aged 55–69 years in 1986. Vegetable and fruit intake was assessed using a 150-item FFQ, and nitrate intake from dietary sources and drinking water was determined. After 16·3 years of follow-up, 433 cases (241 men and 192 women) of Barrett's oesophagus with specialised intestinal metaplasia and 3717 subcohort members were analysed in a case–cohort design using Cox proportional hazards models while adjusting for potential confounders. Men exhibited a lower risk of Barrett's oesophagus in the highest v. the lowest quintile of total (multivariable-adjusted hazard ratio (HR): 0·66, 95 % CI 0·43, 1·01), raw (HR 0·63, 95 % CI 0·40, 0·99), raw leafy (HR 0·55, 95 % CI 0·36, 0·86) and Brassica (HR 0·64, 95 % CI 0·41, 1·00) vegetable intake. No association was found for other vegetable groups and fruits. No significant associations were found between vegetable and fruit intake and Barrett's oesophagus risk among women. Total nitrate intake was inversely associated with Barrett's disease risk in men (HR 0·50, 95 % CI 0·25, 0·99) and positively associated with it in women (HR 3·77, 95 % CI 1·68, 8·45) (P for interaction = 0·04). These results suggest that vegetable intake may contribute to the prevention of Barrett's oesophagus. The possible differential effect in men and women should be evaluated further.

Infant microbiota is influenced by numerous factors, such as delivery mode, environment, prematurity and diet (breast milk or formula). In addition to its nutritional value, breast milk contains bioactive substances that drive microbial colonisation and support immune system development, which are usually not present in infant formulas. Among these substances, polyamines have been described to be essential for intestinal and immune functions in newborns. However, their effect on the establishment of microbiota remains unclear. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to ascertain whether an infant formula supplemented with polyamines has an impact on microbial colonisation by modifying it to resemble that in breast-fed neonatal BALB/c mice. In a 4 d intervention, a total of sixty pups (14 d old) were randomly assigned to the following groups: (1) breast-fed group; (2) non-enriched infant formula-fed group; (3) three different groups fed an infant formula enriched with increasing concentrations of polyamines (mixture of putrescine, spermidine and spermine), following the proportions found in human milk. Microbial composition in the contents of the oral cavity, stomach and small and large intestines was analysed by quantitative PCR targeted at fourteen bacterial genera and species. Significantly different (P< 0·05) microbial colonisation patterns were observed in the entire gastrointestinal tract of the breast-fed and formula-fed mice. In addition, our findings demonstrate that supplementation of polyamines regulates the amounts of total bacteria, Akkermansia muciniphila, Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides–Prevotella and Clostridium groups to levels found in the breast-fed group. Such an effect requires further investigation in human infants, as supplementation of an infant formula with polyamines might contribute to healthy gastrointestinal tract development.

The present study investigated the effect of Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis Bf-6 (LMG 24 384) (Bf-6)-supplemented yogurt on colonic transit time (CTT). A triple-blinded, randomised, placebo-controlled, two-period cross-over trial was conducted with sixty-eight women with a self-reported history of straining during bowel movements or hard or lumpy stools in the past 2 years. As per regulatory requirements for probiotic studies, eligible women were generally healthy and not actively constipated at the time of enrolment. Participants consumed both Bf-6 and placebo yogurts for 14 d each in a randomised order, with a 6-week washout period between the treatments. The primary outcome, CTT, was assessed via Sitz marker X-rays. The average CTT was 42·1 h for the active period and 43·3 h for the control period (mean difference 1·2 h, 95 % CI − 4·9, 7·4). Since the statistical tests for the cross-over study implied that the mean CTT for the active and control periods in period 2 were biased, the standard protocol suggests examining the results of only period 1 as a traditional randomised controlled trial. This showed that the mean CTT was 35·2 h for the active period v. 52·9 h for the control period (P= 0·015). Bootstrapping demonstrated that both the mean and median differences remained significant (P= 0·016 and P= 0·045, respectively). Few adverse events were noted, with no differences among the active and control periods. The paired analysis showed no differences between the active and control periods during the cross-over trial. Further trials should be conducted in populations with underlying problems associated with disordered transit to determine the potential value of probiotic supplementation more accurately.

Certain probiotics may prevent the development of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea (AAD) and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea (CDAD), but their effectiveness depends on both strain and dose. There are few data on nutritional interventions to control AAD/CDAD in the spinal cord injury (SCI) population. The present study aimed to assess (1) the efficacy of consuming a commercially produced probiotic containing at least 6·5 × 109 live Lactobacilluscasei Shirota (LcS) in reducing the incidence of AAD/CDAD, and (2) whether undernutrition and proton pump inhibitors (PPI) are risk factors for AAD/CDAD. A total of 164 SCI patients (50·1 (sd 17·8) years) with a requirement for antibiotics (median 21 d, range 5–366) were randomly allocated to receive LcS (n 76) or no probiotic (n 82). LcS was given once daily for the duration of the antibiotic course and continued for 7 days thereafter. Nutritional risk was assessed by the Spinal Nutrition Screening Tool. The LcS group had a significantly lower incidence of AAD (17·1 v. 54·9 %, P< 0·001). At baseline, 65 % of patients were at undernutrition risk. Undernutrition (64·1 v. 33·3 %, P< 0·01) and the use of PPI (38·4 v. 12·1 %, P= 0·022) were found to be associated with AAD. However, no significant difference was observed in nutrient intake between the groups. The multivariate logistic regression analysis identified poor appetite ( < 1/2 meals eaten) (OR 5·04, 95 % CI 1·28, 19·84) and no probiotic (OR 8·46, 95 % CI 3·22, 22·20) as the independent risk factors for AAD. The present study indicated that LcS could reduce the incidence of AAD in hospitalised SCI patients. A randomised, placebo-controlled study is needed to confirm this apparent therapeutic success in order to translate into improved clinical outcomes.

High-fat, high-carbohydrate (HFHC) meals induce an inflammatory response in mononuclear cells (MNC). Here, we studied the interaction between metabolic and inflammatory signalling pathways by the measurement of postprandial effects of three different test meals on intracellular Akt, S6 kinase (S6K)/mammalian target of rapamycin and NF-κB signalling in human MNC. We recruited six healthy, lean individuals. Each individual ingested three different meals in the morning separated by at least 3 d: a HFHC meal; an oral lipid-tolerance test meal; a healthy breakfast. Blood samples were obtained before and 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 h after ingestion. Plasma insulin and IL-6 levels were measured. Intracellular metabolic and inflammatory signalling pathways were assessed by measuring the phosphorylation of Akt kinase and S6K, the degradation of inhibitory κB-α (IκB-α) protein and the DNA binding activity of NF-κB in MNC. mRNA expression levels of the Akt and NF-κB target genes Mn superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), CC-chemokine-receptor 5 (CCR5), intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) were measured by quantitative RT-PCR. We found a positive correlation of Akt phosphorylation with NF-κB activation (NF-κB binding activity: r 0·4500, P= 0·0003; IκB-α protein levels: r − 0·5435, P< 0·0001), a negative correlation of plasma insulin levels with NF-κB binding activity (r − 0·3993, P= 0·0016) and a positive correlation of plasma insulin levels with S6K activation (r 0·4786, P< 0·0001). The activation of Akt and pro-inflammatory NF-κB signalling was supported by the up-regulation of the respective target genes MnSOD and CCR5. In conclusion, the present data suggest a postprandial interaction between the metabolic and inflammatory signalling pathways Akt and NF-κB in MNC.

In addition to phytate, polyphenols (PP) might contribute to low Fe bioavailability from sorghum-based foods. To investigate the inhibitory effects of sorghum PP on Fe absorption and the potential enhancing effects of ascorbic acid (AA), NaFeEDTA and the PP oxidase enzyme laccase, we carried out three Fe absorption studies in fifty young women consuming dephytinised Fe-fortified test meals based on white and brown sorghum varieties with different PP concentrations. Fe absorption was measured as the incorporation of stable Fe isotopes into erythrocytes. In study 1, Fe absorption from meals with 17 mg PP (8·5 %) was higher than that from meals with 73 mg PP (3·2 %) and 167 mg PP (2·7 %; P< 0·001). Fe absorption from meals containing 73 and 167 mg PP did not differ (P= 0·9). In study 2, Fe absorption from NaFeEDTA-fortified meals (167 mg PP) was higher than that from the same meals fortified with FeSO4 (4·6 v. 2·7 %; P< 0·001), but still it was lower than that from FeSO4-fortified meals with 17 mg PP (10·7 %; P< 0·001). In study 3, laccase treatment decreased the levels of PP from 167 to 42 mg, but it did not improve absorption compared with that from meals with 167 mg PP (4·8 v. 4·6 %; P= 0·4), whereas adding AA increased absorption to 13·6 % (P< 0·001). These findings suggest that PP from brown sorghum contribute to low Fe bioavailability from sorghum foods and that AA and, to a lesser extent, NaFeEDTA, but not laccase, have the potential to overcome the inhibitory effect of PP and improve Fe absorption from sorghum foods.

High-fibre diets offer several beneficial health effects. The objective of the present study was to investigate whether replacement of 30 % of the available carbohydrates with polydextrose (PDX) or soluble maize fibre (SCF) at breakfast and lunch would result in an increased fat oxidation rate and satiety, which may be of relevance for body weight control and diabetes prevention. In a single-blind, randomised cross-over study, eighteen overweight men and women underwent four different dietary interventions, which consisted of a PDX diet, a SCF diet and two control diets (full energetic and isoenergetic, comparable with PDX with respect to g or energy percentage of macronutrients, respectively). Glycaemic profile, energy expenditure and substrate oxidation were measured for 24 h in a respiration chamber. Circulating insulin, NEFA and TAG concentrations were determined over a 14 h period during daytime. Appetite ratings were assessed using visual analogue scales. The replacement of available carbohydrates with PDX or SCF reduced the peak glucose response, which was accompanied by reduced postprandial insulin responses. Moreover, higher concentrations of circulating NEFA were observed after consumption of both fibre diets, which were accompanied by an increased fat oxidation over 24 h. This effect was mainly attributed to the lower energetic value of the fibre diets and not to the fibres per se. Besides increasing fat oxidation, PDX exerted a pronounced suppressive effect on appetite ratings. The replacement of available carbohydrates with PDX may be of special interest because of its beneficial effects on metabolic profile and it may affect body weight control in the long term.

The safety and nutritional adequacy of goat milk infant formulas have been questioned. The primary aim of the present study was to compare the growth and nutritional status of infants fed a goat milk infant formula with those of infants fed a typical whey-based cow milk infant formula. The secondary aim was to examine a range of health- and allergy-related outcomes. A double-blind, randomised controlled trial with 200 formula-fed term infants randomly assigned to receive either goat or cow milk formula from 2 weeks to at least 4 months of age was conducted. A cohort of 101 breast-fed infants was included for comparison. Weight, length and head circumference were measured at 2 weeks and 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 months of age. Nutritional status was assessed from serum albumin, urea, creatinine, Hb, ferritin, and folate and plasma amino acid concentrations at 4 months. Z-scores for weight, length, head circumference and weight for length were not different between the two formula-fed groups. There were differences in the values of some amino acids and blood biomarkers between the formula-fed groups, but the mean values for biomarkers were within the normal reference range. There were no differences in the occurrence of serious adverse events, general health, and incidence of dermatitis or medically diagnosed food allergy. The incidence of parentally reported blood-stained stools was higher in the goat milk formula-fed group, although this was a secondary outcome and its importance is unclear. Goat milk formula provided growth and nutritional outcomes in infants that did not differ from those provided by a standard whey-based cow milk formula.

Cocoa products present great health potential due to their high content of polyphenols, mainly of flavanols. However, the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and other health effects of regularly consuming cocoa products seem to depend on the intake and health status of the consumer, etc. and need to be further clarified. A randomised, controlled, cross-over, free-living study was carried out in healthy (n 24) and moderately hypercholesterolaemic (>2000 mg/l, n 20) subjects to assess the influence of regularly consuming (4 weeks) two servings (15 g each) of a cocoa product rich in fibre (containing 33·9 % of total dietary fibre (TDF) and 13·9 mg/g of soluble polyphenols) in milk v. consuming only milk (control) on (1) serum lipid and lipoprotein profile, (2) serum malondialdehyde levels, carbonyl groups, ferric reducing/antioxidant power, oxygen radical absorbance capacity and free radical-scavenging capacity, (3) IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10, IL-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and vascular and intracellular cell adhesion molecule levels, and (4) systolic and diastolic blood pressure and heart rate. Throughout the study, the diet and physical activity of the volunteers, as well as any possible changes in weight or other anthropometric parameters, were also evaluated. The intake of TDF increased (P< 0·001) to the recommended levels. Serum HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) levels were increased (P< 0·001), whereas glucose (P= 0·029), IL-1β (P= 0·001) and IL-10 (P= 0·001) levels were decreased. The rest of the studied cardiovascular parameters, as well as the anthropometric ones, remained similar. In conclusion, regularly consuming a cocoa product with milk improves cardiovascular health by increasing HDL-C levels and inducing hypoglycaemic and anti-inflammatory effects in healthy and hypercholesterolaemic individuals without causing weight gain.

Dietary interventions with flavan-3-ols have shown beneficial effects on vascular function. The translation of these findings into the context of the health of the general public requires detailed information on habitual dietary intake. However, only limited data are currently available for European populations. Therefore, in the present study, we assessed the habitual intake of flavan-3-ol monomers, proanthocyanidins (PA) and theaflavins in the European Union (EU) and determined their main food sources using the EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database. Data for adults aged 18–64 years were available from fourteen European countries, and intake was determined using the FLAVIOLA Flavanol Food Composition Database, developed for the present study and based on the latest US Department of Agriculture and Phenol-Explorer databases. The mean habitual intake of flavan-3-ol monomers, theaflavins and PA ranged from 181 mg/d (Czech Republic) to 793 mg/d (Ireland). The highest intakes of flavan-3-ol monomers and theaflavins were observed in Ireland (191/505 mg/d) and the lowest intakes in Spain (24/9 mg/d). In contrast, the daily intake of PA was highest in Spain (175 mg/d) and lowest in The Netherlands (96 mg/d). Main sources were tea (62 %), pome fruits (11 %), berries (3 %) and cocoa products (3 %). Tea was the major single contributor to monomer intake (75 %), followed by pome fruits (6 %). Pome fruits were also the main source of PA (28 %). The present study provides important data on the population-based intake of flavanols in the EU and demonstrates that dietary intake amounts for flavan-3-ol monomers, PA and theaflavins vary significantly across European countries. The average habitual intake of flavan-3-ols is considerably below the amounts used in most dietary intervention studies.

The aim of the present study was to compare the lifestyle (leisure-time physical activity, smoking habits and alcohol consumption) and dietary (energy-yielding nutrients, dietary fibre and foods) factors of Finns with a new syndrome called normal-weight obesity (NWO) with those of lean and overweight Finns. The representative population-based study included 4786 participants (25–74 years) from the National FINRISK 2007 Study with a health examination and questionnaires. Food intake was assessed using a validated FFQ. NWO was defined to include those with a normal BMI ( < 25 kg/m2) but excessive body fat (for men ≥ 20 % and for women ≥ 30 %) according to WHO definitions. The proportion of participants with a normal BMI was 28 % in men and 42 % in women. Of these, 34 % of the men and 45 % of the women had the NWO syndrome (among all the participants, 10 and 19 %, respectively). The waist circumference of the NWO participants was between that of the lean and overweight participants. Some potential risk factors, such as physical inactivity, (ex)-smoking and alcohol consumption, were related to NWO. In general, the intakes of energy-yielding nutrients were not associated with NWO. Instead, some healthy dietary factors (e.g. low intakes of meat and soft drinks) as well as unhealthy factors (e.g. low intakes of root vegetables, cereals and fish and high intake of confectionery) were related to NWO. The findings might explain why the NWO participants were of normal weight, but had an excessive body fat percentage. In conclusion, the proportion of normal-weight participants with an excessive body fat percentage was surprisingly high. The identification of NWO people may be of importance because although they appear lean, they have some unhealthy lifestyle and dietary habits related to obesity and overall health.

The aim of the present study was to determine whether age and sex influence both the status and incorporation of EPA and DHA into blood plasma, cells and tissues. The study was a double-blind, randomised, controlled intervention trial, providing EPA plus DHA equivalent to 0, 1, 2 or 4 portions of oily fish per week for 12 months. The participants were stratified by age and sex. A linear regression model was used to analyse baseline outcomes, with covariates for age or sex groups and by adjusting for BMI. The change in outcomes from baseline to 12 months was analysed with additional adjustment for treatment and average compliance. Fatty acid profiles in plasma phosphatidylcholine, cholesteryl esters, NEFA and TAG, mononuclear cells (MNC), erythrocyte membranes, platelets, buccal cells (BU) and adipose tissue (AT) were determined. At baseline, EPA concentrations in plasma NEFA and DHA concentrations in MNC, BU and AT were higher in females than in males (all P< 0·05). The concentrations of EPA in AT (P= 0·003) and those of DHA in plasma TAG (P< 0·01) and AT (P< 0·001) were higher with increasing age. Following 12-month supplementation with EPA plus DHA, adjusted mean difference for change in EPA concentrations in plasma TAG was significantly higher in females than in males (P< 0·05) and was greater with increasing age (P= 0·02). Adjusted mean difference for change in DHA concentrations in AT was significantly smaller with increasing age (P= 0·02). Although small differences in incorporation with age and sex were identified, these were not of sufficient magnitude to warrant a move away from population-level diet recommendations for n-3 PUFA.

Several epidemiological studies in adults have suggested a favourable effect of frequent eating on blood lipid profiles, but evidence in younger populations is lacking. In the present cross-sectional study, we examined the associations of eating frequency (EF) with metabolic risk factors in British children aged 4–10 years (n 818) and adolescents aged 11–18 years (n 818). Dietary intake was assessed using a 7 d weighed dietary record. EF was calculated based on all eating occasions, except for those providing < 210 kJ of energy. Metabolic risk factors examined were total, HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations, TAG concentration, BMI z-score, waist:height ratio (WHtR; only adolescents), and systolic and diastolic blood pressures. Adjustment was made for age, sex, social class, physical activity levels, intakes of protein, fat, total sugar and dietary fibre, ratio of reported energy intake to estimated energy requirement (EI:EER) and BMI z-score (except for BMI z-score and WHtR). In children, EF was inversely associated with total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations (n 324, P= 0·01 and 0·04, respectively). Conversely, EF was positively associated with BMI z-score in adolescents (P= 0·004). There were no associations between EF and other metabolic risk factors. In analyses in which only plausible energy reporters (EI:EER: 0·72–1·28) were included, similar results were obtained, except for an inverse association between EF and diastolic blood pressure in children. In conclusion, a higher EF is associated with lower total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations in children but with a higher BMI z-score in adolescents.

Carrot, tomato and papaya represent important dietary sources of β-carotene and lycopene. The main objective of the present study was to compare the bioavailability of carotenoids from these food sources in healthy human subjects. A total of sixteen participants were recruited for a randomised cross-over study. Test meals containing raw carrots, tomatoes and papayas were adjusted to deliver an equal amount of β-carotene and lycopene. For the evaluation of bioavailability, TAG-rich lipoprotein (TRL) fractions containing newly absorbed carotenoids were analysed over 9·5 h after test meal consumption. The bioavailability of β-carotene from papayas was approximately three times higher than that from carrots and tomatoes, whereas differences in the bioavailability of β-carotene from carrots and tomatoes were insignificant. Retinyl esters appeared in the TRL fractions at a significantly higher concentration after the consumption of the papaya test meal. Similarly, lycopene was approximately 2·6 times more bioavailable from papayas than from tomatoes. Furthermore, the bioavailability of β-cryptoxanthin from papayas was shown to be 2·9 and 2·3 times higher than that of the other papaya carotenoids β-carotene and lycopene, respectively. The morphology of chromoplasts and the physical deposition form of carotenoids were hypothesised to play a major role in the differences observed in the bioavailability of carotenoids from the foods investigated. Particularly, the liquid-crystalline deposition of β-carotene and the storage of lycopene in very small crystalloids in papayas were found to be associated with their high bioavailability. In conclusion, papaya was shown to provide highly bioavailable β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin and lycopene and may represent a readily available dietary source of provitamin A for reducing the incidence of vitamin A deficiencies in many subtropical and tropical developing countries.

Although it is well known that water is essential for human homeostasis and survival, only recently have we begun to understand its role in the maintenance of brain function. Herein, we integrate emerging evidence regarding the effects of both dehydration and additional acute water consumption on cognition and mood. Current findings in the field suggest that particular cognitive abilities and mood states are positively influenced by water consumption. The impact of dehydration on cognition and mood is particularly relevant for those with poor fluid regulation, such as the elderly and children. We critically review the most recent advances in both behavioural and neuroimaging studies of dehydration and link the findings to the known effects of water on hormonal, neurochemical and vascular functions in an attempt to suggest plausible mechanisms of action. We identify some methodological weaknesses, including inconsistent measurements in cognitive assessment and the lack of objective hydration state measurements as well as gaps in knowledge concerning mediating factors that may influence water intervention effects. Finally, we discuss how future research can best elucidate the role of water in the optimal maintenance of brain health and function.

n-3 Fatty acids (EPA and DHA, from fish oil) are essential fatty acids that are approved for the treatment of severe hypertriacylglycerolaemia and, in some countries, used for reducing the risk of CVD. Because of their inhibitory effects on platelet function, some practitioners have, perhaps unnecessarily, discontinued their use in patients undergoing invasive procedures or being treated with anti-platelet or anticoagulation drugs. Thus, the aim of the present study was to review the effects of n-3 fatty acids on bleeding complications in a wide variety of clinical settings, and to summarise their biochemical mechanism of action in platelet function and coagulation. We surveyed recent publications that either directly studied the effects of n-3 fatty acids on the risk of bleeding or focused on different end-points and also reported the effects on bleeding. n-3 Fatty acid treatment had no effect on the risk of clinically significant bleeding in either monotherapy or combination therapy settings. Although originally believed to operate primarily via the cyclo-oxygenase system, these fatty acids have been shown to affect multiple signalling pathways and thrombotic processes beyond simply affecting platelet aggregation. The present overview found no support for discontinuing the use of n-3 fatty acid treatment before invasive procedures or when given in combination with other agents that affect bleeding. On the contrary, the use of these fatty acids in several settings improved clinical outcomes.