Soya-based infant formulas (SIF) containing soya flour were introduced almost 100 years ago. Modern soya formulas are used in allergy/intolerance to cows' milk-based formulas (CMF), post-infectious diarrhoea, lactose intolerance and galactosaemia, as a vegan human milk (HM) substitute, etc. The safety of SIF is still debated. In the present study, we reviewed the safety of SIF in relation to anthropometric growth, bone health (bone mineral content), immunity, cognition, and reproductive and endocrine functions. The present review includes cross-sectional, case–control, cohort studies or clinical trials that were carried out in children fed SIF compared with those fed other types of infant formulas and that measured safety. The databases that were searched included PubMed (1909 to July 2013), Embase (1988 to May 2013), LILACS (1990 to May 2011), ARTEMISA (13th edition, December 2012), Cochrane controlled trials register, Bandolier and DARE using the Cochrane methodology. Wherever possible, a meta-analysis was carried out. We found that the anthropometric patterns of children fed SIF were similar to those of children fed CMF or HM. Despite the high levels of phytates and aluminium in SIF, Hb, serum protein, Zn and Ca concentrations and bone mineral content were found to be similar to those of children fed CMF or HM. We also found the levels of genistein and daidzein to be higher in children fed SIF; however, we did not find strong evidence of a negative effect on reproductive and endocrine functions. Immune measurements and neurocognitive parameters were similar in all the feeding groups. In conclusion, modern SIF are evidence-based safety options to feed children requiring them. The patterns of growth, bone health and metabolic, reproductive, endocrine, immune and neurological functions are similar to those observed in children fed CMF or HM.

In the present study, following the measurement of methane emissions from 160 mature ewes three times, a subset of twenty ewes was selected for further emission and physiological studies. Ewes were selected on the basis of methane yield (MY; g CH4/kg DM intake) being low (Low MY: >1 sd below the mean; n 10) or high (High MY: >1 sd above the mean; n 10) when fed a blended chaff ration at a fixed feeding level (1·2-fold maintenance energy requirements). The difference between the Low- and High-MY groups observed at the time of selection was maintained (P= 0·001) when remeasured 1–7 months later during digesta kinetics studies. Low MY was associated with a shorter mean retention time of particulate (P< 0·01) and liquid (P< 0·001) digesta, less amounts of rumen particulate contents (P< 0·01) and a smaller rumen volume (P< 0·05), but not apparent DM digestibility (P= 0·27) or urinary allantoin excretion (P= 0·89). Computer tomography scanning of the sheep's rumens after an overnight fast revealed a trend towards the Low-MY sheep having more clearly demarcated rumen gas and liquid phases (P= 0·10). These findings indicate that the selection of ruminants for low MY may have important consequences for an animal's nutritional physiology.

Se is an essential trace element, and is incorporated into selenoproteins which play important roles in human health. Mammalian selenoprotein-coding genes are often present as paralogues in teleost fish, and it is unclear whether the expression patterns or functions of these fish paralogues reflect their mammalian orthologues. Using the model species zebrafish (Danio rerio; ZF), we aimed to assess how dietary Se affects key parameters in Se metabolism and utilisation including glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity, the mRNA expression of key Se-dependent proteins (gpx1a, gpx1b, sepp1a and sepp1b), oxidative status, reproductive success and F1 generation locomotor activity. From 27 d until 254 d post-fertilisation, ZF were fed diets with graded levels of Se ranging from deficient ( < 0·10 mg/kg) to toxic (30 mg/kg). The mRNA expression of gpx1a and gpx1b and GPX activity responded in a similar manner to changes in Se status. GPX activity and mRNA levels were lowest when dietary Se levels (0·3 mg/kg) resulted in the maximum growth of ZF, and a proposed bimodal mechanism in response to Se status below and above this dietary Se level was identified. The expression of the sepp1 paralogues differed, with only sepp1a responding to Se status. High dietary Se supplementation (30 mg/kg) decreased reproductive success, while the offspring of ZF fed above 0·3 mg Se/kg diet had lower locomotor activity than the other groups. Overall, the novel finding of low selenoprotein expression and activity coinciding with maximum body growth suggests that even small Se-induced variations in redox status may influence cellular growth rates.

The present study investigated the potential of a wild blueberry (WB)-enriched diet to improve blood lipid profile and modulate the expression of genes related to lipid homeostasis in obese Zucker rats (OZR), a model of the metabolic syndrome with severe dyslipidaemia. For this purpose, twenty OZR and twenty lean Zucker rats (LZR; controls) were placed either on a control (C) or an 8 % WB diet for 8 weeks. Plasma total cholesterol (TC), HDL-cholesterol and TAG concentrations were determined. The relative expression of six genes involved in lipid metabolism was also determined in both the liver and the abdominal adipose tissue (AAT). Plasma TAG and TC concentrations were significantly lower in the OZR following WB consumption (4228 (sem 471) and 2287 (sem 125) mg/l, respectively) than in those on the C diet (5475 (sem 315) and 2631 (sem 129) mg/l, P< 0·05), while there was no change in HDL-cholesterol concentration. No significant effects were observed for plasma lipids in the LZR. Following WB consumption, the expression of the transcription factors PPARα and PPARγ in the OZR was increased in the AAT, while that of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP-1) was decreased in the liver and AAT. The expression of fatty acid synthase was significantly decreased in both the liver and AAT and that of ATP-binding cassette transporter 1 was increased in the AAT following WB consumption. In conclusion, WB consumption appears to improve lipid profiles and modulate the expression of key enzymes and transcription factors of lipid metabolism in severely dyslipidaemic rats.

Complex relationships exist between the gut microflora and their human hosts. Emerging evidence suggests that bacterial dysbiosis within the colon may be involved in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes and CVD. The use of dietary prebiotic supplements to restore an optimal balance of intestinal flora may positively affect host metabolism, representing a potential treatment strategy for individuals with cardiometabolic disorders. The present review aimed to examine the current evidence supporting that dietary prebiotic supplementation in adults has beneficial effects on biochemical parameters associated with the development of metabolic abnormalities including obesity, glucose intolerance, dyslipidaemia, hepatic steatosis and low-grade chronic inflammation. Between January 2000 and September 2013, eight computer databases were searched for randomised controlled trials published in English. Human trials were included if at least one group received a dietary prebiotic intervention. In the present review, twenty-six randomised controlled trials involving 831 participants were included. Evidence indicated that dietary prebiotic supplementation increased self-reported feelings of satiety in healthy adults (standardised mean difference − 0·57, 95 % CI − 1·13, − 0·01). Prebiotic supplementation also significantly reduced postprandial glucose ( − 0·76, 95 % CI − 1·41, − 0·12) and insulin ( − 0·77, 95 % CI − 1·50, − 0·04) concentrations. The effects of dietary prebiotics on total energy intake, body weight, peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1 concentrations, gastric emptying times, insulin sensitivity, lipids, inflammatory markers and immune function were contradictory. Dietary prebiotic consumption was found to be associated with subjective improvements in satiety and reductions in postprandial glucose and insulin concentrations. Additional evidence is required before recommending prebiotic supplements to individuals with metabolic abnormalities. Large-scale trials of longer duration evaluating gut microbial growth and activity are required.

Ketoacids (KA) are known to improve muscle mass among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) on a low-protein diet (CKD-LPD), but the mechanism of its preventive effects on muscle atrophy still remains unclear. Since muscle atrophy in CKD may be attributable to the down-regulation of the Wnt7a/Akt/p70S6K pathway and the activation of the ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS) and the apoptotic signalling pathway, a hypothesis can readily be drawn that KA supplementation improves muscle mass by up-regulating the Wnt7a/Akt/p70S6K pathway and counteracting the activation of the UPS and caspase-3-dependent apoptosis in the muscle of CKD-LPD rats. Rats with 5/6 nephrectomy were randomly divided into three groups, and fed with either 22 % protein (normal-protein diet; NPD), 6 % protein (LPD) or 5 % protein plus 1 % KA for 24 weeks. Sham-operated rats with NPD intake were used as the control. The results demonstrated that KA supplementation improved protein synthesis and increased related mediators such as Wnt7a, phosphorylated Akt and p70S6K in the muscle of CKD-LPD rats. It also inhibited protein degradation, withheld the increase in ubiquitin and its ligases MAFbx (muscle atrophy F-box) and MuRF1 (muscle ring finger-1) as well as attenuated proteasome activity in the muscle of CKD-LPD rats. Moreover, KA supplementation gave rise to a reduction in DNA fragment, cleaved caspase-3 and 14 kDa actin fragment via the down-regulation of the Bax:Bcl-2 ratio in the muscle of CKD-LPD rats. The beneficial effects unveiled herein further consolidate that KA may be a better therapeutic strategy for muscle atrophy in CKD-LPD.

In the present study, we investigated the development of hypertension in prenatally undernourished adult rats, including the mechanisms that culminate in dysfunctions of molecular signalling in the kidney. Dams were fed a low-protein multideficient diet throughout gestation with or without α-tocopherol during lactation. The time course of hypertension development followed in male offspring was correlated with alterations in proximal tubule Na+-ATPase activity, expression of angiotensin II (Ang II) receptors, and activity of protein kinases C and A. After the establishment of hypertension, Ang II levels, cyclo-oxygenase 2 (COX-2) and NADPH oxidase subunit expression, lipid peroxidation and macrophage infiltration were examined in renal tissue. Lipid peroxidation in undernourished rats, which was very intense at 60 d, decreased at 90 d and returned to control values by 150 d. During the prehypertensive phase, prenatally undernourished rats exhibited elevated renal Na+-ATPase activity, type 2 Ang II receptor down-regulation and altered protein kinase A:protein kinase C ratio. Stable late hypertension coexisted with highly elevated levels of Ang II-positive cells in the cortical tubulointerstitium, enhanced increase in the expression of p47phox (NADPH oxidase regulatory subunit), marked down-regulation of COX-2 expression, expanded plasma volume and decreased creatinine clearance. These alterations were reduced when the dams were given α-tocopherol during lactation. The offspring of well-nourished dams treated with α-tocopherol exhibited most of the alterations encountered in the offspring of undernourished dams not treated with α-tocopherol. Thus, alterations in proximal tubule Na+ transport, subcellular signalling pathways and reactive oxygen species handling in renal tissue underpin the development of hypertension.

Vitamin D deficiency is associated with osteoporosis and is thought to increase the risk of cancer and CVD. Despite these numerous potential health effects, data on vitamin D status at the population level and within key subgroups are limited. The aims of the present study were to examine patterns of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels worldwide and to assess differences by age, sex and region. In a systematic literature review using the Medline and EMBASE databases, we identified 195 studies conducted in forty-four countries involving more than 168 000 participants. Mean population-level 25(OH)D values varied considerably across the studies (range 4·9–136·2 nmol/l), with 37·3 % of the studies reporting mean values below 50 nmol/l. The highest 25(OH)D values were observed in North America. Although age-related differences were observed in the Asia/Pacific and Middle East/Africa regions, they were not observed elsewhere and sex-related differences were not observed in any region. Substantial heterogeneity between the studies precluded drawing conclusions on overall vitamin D status at the population level. Exploratory analyses, however, suggested that newborns and institutionalised elderly from several regions worldwide appeared to be at a generally higher risk of exhibiting lower 25(OH)D values. Substantial details on worldwide patterns of vitamin D status at the population level and within key subgroups are needed to inform public health policy development to reduce risk for potential health consequences of an inadequate vitamin D status.

The present study aimed to investigate the responses of broilers with different hatching weights (HW) to dietary methionine (Met). A total of 192 1-d-old Arbor Acres broiler chicks with different HW (heavy: 48·3 (sem 0·1) g and light: 41·7 (sem 0·1) g) were allocated to a 2 (HW) × 2 (Met) factorial arrangement with six replicates of eight chicks. Control starter (1–21 d) and finisher (22–42 d) diets contained 0·50 and 0·43 % Met, respectively. Corresponding values for a high-Met treatment were 0·60 and 0·53 %. Light chicks had poorer (P< 0·05) growth performance and breast muscle weight and lower (P< 0·05) insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) concentration and mRNA level in breast muscle than heavy chicks when both were fed the control diets. High-Met diets improved performance and promoted breast muscle growth and IGF-I concentration in light chicks (P< 0·05). Increased IGF-I and target of rapamycin (TOR) mRNA levels as well as decreased eIF4E-binding protein 1 (4EBP1), atrogin-1 and forkhead box O 4 (FOXO4) mRNA levels were induced by high-Met diets in light chicks (P< 0·05). In conclusion, the Met requirement of broilers might depend on their HW and Met levels used in the control diets in the present study were adequate for heavy chicks but inadequate for light chicks, resulting in poorer performance and breast muscle growth, which were improved by increasing dietary Met supply presumably through alterations in IGF-I synthesis and gene expression of the TOR/4EBP1 and FOXO4/atrogin-1 pathway.

There is a general lack of knowledge regarding the absorption and tissue storage of the provitamin A carotenoid β-cryptoxanthin. The present study investigated the whole-body tissue distribution of β-cryptoxanthin in an appropriate small animal model, the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus), for human provitamin A carotenoid metabolism. After 5 d of carotenoid depletion, five gerbils were euthanised for baseline measurements. The remaining gerbils were placed in three weight-matched treatment groups (n 8). All the groups received 20 μg/d of β-cryptoxanthin from tangerine concentrate, while the second and third groups received an additional 20 and 40 μg/d of pure β-cryptoxanthin (CX40 and CX60), respectively, for 21 d. During the last 2 d of the study, urine and faecal samples of two gerbils from each treatment group were collected. β-Cryptoxanthin was detected in the whole blood, and in twelve of the fourteen tissues analysed. Most tissues resembled the liver, in which the concentrations of β-cryptoxanthin were significantly higher in the CX60 (17·8 (sem 0·7) μg/organ; P= 0·004) and CX40 (16·2 (sem 0·9) μg/organ; P= 0·006) groups than in the CX20 group (13·3 (sem 0·4) μg/organ). However, in intestinal tissues, the concentrations of β-cryptoxanthin increased only in the CX60 group. Despite elevated vitamin A concentrations in tissues at baseline due to pre-study diets containing high levels of vitamin A, β-cryptoxanthin maintained those vitamin A stores. These results indicate that β-cryptoxanthin is stored in many tissues, potentially suggesting that its functions are widespread.

Adaptations in growth dynamics in fish, i.e. how fish prioritise tissue accretion between organs, remains poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated the effects of graded feed restriction levels on nutrient deposition in 1·3 g fingerlings and 70 g juveniles. At the whole-body level, highly restricted juveniles strove to maintain body protein while mobilising lipid reserves and compensating for mass loss by increasing water content. In contrast, fingerlings maintained body water and energy contents. Additionally, we investigated deposition patterns in four body compartments (red and white axial muscles, viscera and rest of the carcass) in juveniles and changes in the cellularity of the white and red muscles in fingerlings. We provide evidence of priorities in growth and nutrient deposition in body compartments in response to low feeding levels. In juveniles, feed intake (FI) primarily affected the white muscle, while the red muscle and the viscera appeared to be preserved. Specific proteins (45 and 173 kDa) were preferentially deposited in the white muscle, while others (22 and 32 kDa) were preferentially mobilised. In fingerlings' muscle anterior to the anus, the cross-sectional surface areas increased with increasing FI in a logarithmic fashion in the white muscle, and in linear fashion in the red muscle. The maximum diameter of white fibres decreased linearly with fish length, while that of red fibres remained stable. This suggests an adaptation mechanism by decreasing white muscle hyperplasia in favour of hypertrophy when feed is restricted. Overall, these results indicate some mechanisms by which fish cope with low food availability. Our findings also suggest different adaptation strategies employed by fish of different body weights.

The human intestine is colonised by 1013 to 1014 micro-organisms, the vast majority of which belong to the phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Although highly stable over time, the composition and activities of the microbiota may be influenced by a number of factors including age, diet and antibiotic treatment. Although perturbations in the composition or functions of the microbiota are linked to inflammatory and metabolic disorders (e.g. inflammatory bowel diseases, irritable bowel syndrome and obesity), it is unclear at this point whether these changes are a symptom of the disease or a contributing factor. A better knowledge of the mechanisms through which changes in microbiota composition (dysbiosis) promote disease states is needed to improve our understanding of the causal relationship between the gut microbiota and disease. While evidence of the preventive and therapeutic effects of probiotic strains on diarrhoeal illness and other intestinal conditions is promising, the exact mechanisms of the beneficial effects are not fully understood. Recent studies have raised the question of whether non-viable probiotic strains can confer health benefits on the host by influencing the immune system. As the potential health effect of these non-viable bacteria depends on whether the mechanism of this effect is dependent on viability, future research needs to consider each probiotic strain on a case-by-case basis. The present review provides a comprehensive, updated overview of the human gut microbiota, the factors influencing its composition and the role of probiotics as a therapeutic modality in the treatment and prevention of diseases and/or restoration of human health.

Luminal nutrient sensing by G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) expressed on the apical domain of enteroendocrine cells activates intracellular pathways leading to secretion of gut hormones that control vital physiological processes such as digestion, absorption, food intake and glucose homeostasis. The taste 1 receptor (T1R) family of GPCR consists of three members: T1R1; T1R2; T1R3. Expression of T1R1, T1R2 and T1R3 at mRNA and protein levels has been demonstrated in the intestinal tissue of various species. It has been shown that T1R2–T1R3, in association with G-protein gustducin, is expressed in intestinal K and L endocrine cells, where it acts as the intestinal glucose (sweet) sensor. A number of studies have demonstrated that activation of T1R2–T1R3 by natural sugars and artificial sweeteners leads to secretion of glucagon-like peptides 1&2 (GLP-1 and GLP-2) and glucose dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP). GLP-1 and GIP enhance insulin secretion; GLP-2 increases intestinal growth and glucose absorption. T1R1–T1R3 combination co-expressed on the apical domain of cholecystokinin (CCK) expressing cells is a luminal sensor for a number of l-amino acids; with amino acid-activation of the receptor eliciting CCK secretion. This article focuses on the role of the gut-expressed T1R1, T1R2 and T1R3 in intestinal sweet and l-amino acid sensing. The impact of exploiting T1R2–T1R3 as a nutritional target for enhancing intestinal glucose absorption and gut structural maturity in young animals is also highlighted.

Low birth weight (LBW) exerts persistent effects on the growth and development of offspring. The present study was conducted to test the hypothesis that LBW alters the response of pigs to high-fat (HF) diet-induced changes in meat quality and skeletal muscle proteome. Normal-birth weight (NBW) and LBW piglets were fed a control diet or a HF diet from weaning to slaughter at 110 kg body weight. Most of the meat quality traits were influenced by LBW. Meat quality analysis revealed that LBW piglets had a greater ability to deposit intramuscular lipids than their heavier littermates when fed a HF diet. Increased shear force, lower pH45min and drip loss were observed in the skeletal muscle of LBW piglets compared with NBW piglets. Proteomic analysis revealed forty-six differentially expressed proteins in the skeletal muscle of LBW and NBW piglets fed the control diet or HF diet. These proteins play a central role in cell structure and motility, glucose and energy metabolism, lipid metabolism, and cellular apoptosis, as well as stress response. Of particular interest is the finding that LBW altered the response to HF diet-induced changes in the expression of proteins related to stress response (heat shock protein) and glucose and energy metabolism (pyruvate kinase, phosphoglycerate mutase, enolase and triosephosphate isomerase). Taken together, our findings revealed that the HF diet-induced changes in the expression of glucose and energy metabolism-related proteins varied between NBW and LBW piglets, which provides a possible mechanism to explain higher intramuscular fat store in LBW pigs when fed a HF diet.

We have previously shown that whey protein hydrolysate (WPH) causes a greater increase in muscle protein synthesis than does a mixture of amino acids that is identical in amino acid composition. The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of WPH on gene expression. Male Sprague–Dawley rats subjected to a 2 h swimming exercise were administered either a carbohydrate–amino acid diet or a carbohydrate–WPH diet immediately after exercise. At 1 h after exercise, epitrochlearis muscle mRNA was sampled and subjected to DNA microarray analysis. We found that ingestion of WPH altered 189 genes after considering the false discovery rate. Among the up-regulated genes, eight Gene Ontology (GO) terms were enriched, which included key elements such as Cd24, Ccl2, Ccl7 and Cxcl1 involved in muscle repair after exercise. In contrast, nine GO terms were enriched in gene sets that were down-regulated by the ingestion of WPH, and these GO terms fell into two clusters, ‘regulation of ATPase activity’ and ‘immune response’. Furthermore, we found that WPH activated two upstream proteins, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), which might act as key factors for regulating gene expression. These results suggest that ingestion of WPH, compared with ingestion of a mixture of amino acids with an identical amino acid composition, induces greater changes in the post-exercise gene expression profile via activation of the proteins ERK1/2 and HIF-1α.

Coffee consumption has been shown to be associated with various health outcomes, but no comprehensive review and meta-analysis of the association between coffee consumption and total mortality has been conducted. To quantitatively assess this association, we conducted a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Eligible studies were identified by searching the PubMed and EMBASE databases for all articles published through June 2013 and reviewing the reference lists of the retrieved articles. Pooled relative risks (RR) with 95 % CI were calculated using a random-effects model. We identified twenty studies of coffee consumption and total mortality, including 129 538 cases of deaths among the 973 904 participants. The RR of total mortality for the high v. low category of coffee consumption was 0·86 (95 % CI 0·80, 0·92). The pooled RR for studies using ≥ 2–4 cups/d as a cut-off for the high category was similar to that for studies using ≥ 5–9 cups/d as the cut-off. By geographical region, the inverse association tended to be stronger for the eight studies conducted in Europe (RR 0·78, 95 % CI 0·70, 0·88) and three studies carried out in Japan (RR 0·82, 95 % CI 0·73, 0·92) than for the nine studies conducted in the USA (RR 0·92, 95 % CI 0·84, 1·00). The inverse association was similar for men (RR 0·81, 95 % CI 0·73, 0·90) and women (RR 0·84, 95 % CI 0·79, 0·89). A weak, but significant, inverse association was found with moderate coffee consumption (1–2 cups/d; RR 0·92, 95 % CI 0·87, 0·98). High decaffeinated coffee consumption was also found to be associated with a lower risk of death, but the data are limited. Our findings indicate that coffee consumption is associated with a reduced risk of total mortality.

Common beans contain non-digestible fermentable components (SCFA precursors) and phenolic compounds (phenolic acids, flavonoids and anthocyanins) with demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. The objective of the present study was to assess the in vivo effect of cooked whole-bean flours, with differing phenolic compound levels and profiles, in a mouse model of acute colitis. C57BL/6 mice were fed a 20 % navy bean or black bean flour-containing diet or an isoenergetic basal diet (BD) for 2 weeks before the induction of experimental colitis via 7 d dextran sodium sulphate (DSS, 2 % (w/v) in the drinking-water) exposure. Compared with the BD, both bean diets increased caecal SCFA and faecal phenolic compound concentrations (P< 0·05), which coincided with both beneficial and adverse effects on colonic and systemic inflammation. On the one hand, bean diets reduced mRNA expression of colonic inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-9, IFN-γ and IL-17A) and increased anti-inflammatory IL-10 (P< 0·05), while systemically reduced circulating cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα, IFNγ, and IL-17A, P< 0·05) and DSS-induced oxidative stress. On the other hand, bean diets enhanced DSS-induced colonic damage as indicated by an increased histological injury score and apoptosis (cleaved caspase-3 and FasL mRNA expression) (P< 0·05). In conclusion, bean-containing diets exerted both beneficial and adverse effects during experimental colitis by reducing inflammatory biomarkers both locally and systemically while aggravating colonic mucosal damage. Further research is required to understand the mechanisms through which beans exert their effects on colonic inflammation and the impact on colitis severity in human subjects.

Previous work has shown that hunger and food intake are lower in individuals on high-protein (HP) diets when combined with low carbohydrate (LC) intakes rather than with moderate carbohydrate (MC) intakes and where a more ketogenic state occurs. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the difference between HPLC and HPMC diets was associated with changes in glucose and ketone body metabolism, particularly within key areas of the brain involved in appetite control. A total of twelve men, mean BMI 34·9 kg/m2, took part in a randomised cross-over trial, with two 4-week periods when isoenergetic fixed-intake diets (8·3 MJ/d) were given, with 30 % of the energy being given as protein and either (1) a very LC (22 g/d; HPLC) or (2) a MC (182 g/d; HPMC) intake. An 18fluoro-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography scan of the brain was conducted at the end of each dietary intervention period, following an overnight fast (n 4) or 4 h after consumption of a test meal (n 8). On the next day, whole-body ketone and glucose metabolism was quantified using [1,2,3,4-13C]acetoacetate, [2,4-13C]3-hydroxybutyrate and [6,6-2H2]glucose. The composite hunger score was 14 % lower (P= 0·013) for the HPLC dietary intervention than for the HPMC diet. Whole-body ketone flux was approximately 4-fold greater for the HPLC dietary intervention than for the HPMC diet (P< 0·001). The 9-fold difference in carbohydrate intakes between the HPLC and HPMC dietary interventions led to a 5 % lower supply of glucose to the brain. Despite this, the uptake of glucose by the fifty-four regions of the brain analysed remained similar for the two dietary interventions. In conclusion, differences in the composite hunger score observed for the two dietary interventions are not associated with the use of alternative fuels by the brain.

Low dietary K levels have been associated with increasing renal Ca excretion in humans, indicating a higher risk of calcium oxalate (CaOx) urolith formation. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate whether dietary K also affects the urine composition of cats. A total of eight adult cats were fed diets containing 0·31 % native K and 0·50, 0·75 and 1·00 % K from KCl or KHCO3 and were evaluated for the effects of dietary K. High dietary K levels were found to elevate urinary K concentrations (P< 0·001). Renal Ca excretion was higher in cats fed the KCl diets than in those fed the KHCO3 diets (P= 0·026), while urinary oxalate concentrations were generally lower in cats fed the KCl diets and only dependent on dietary K levels in cats fed the KHCO3 diets (P< 0·05). Fasting urine pH increased with higher dietary K levels (P= 0·022), reaching values of 6·38 (1·00 % KCl) and 7·65 (1·00 % KHCO3). K retention was markedly negative after feeding the cats with the basal diet ( − 197 mg/d) and the 0·50 % KCl diet ( − 131 mg/d), while the cats tended to maintain their balance on being fed the highest-KCl diet ( − 23·3 mg/d). In contrast, K from KHCO3 was more efficiently retained (P= 0·018), with K retention being between − 82·5 and 52·5 mg/d. In conclusion, the dietary inclusion of KHCO3 instead of KCl as K source could be beneficial for the prevention of CaOx urolith formation in cats, since there is an association between a lower renal Ca excretion and a generally higher urine pH. The utilisation of K is distinctly influenced by the K salt, which may be especially practically relevant when using diets with low K levels.

Different regimens of food restriction have been associated with protection against obesity, diabetes and CVD. In the present study, we hypothesised that food restriction would bring benefits to atherosclerosis- and diabetes-prone hypercholesterolaemic LDL-receptor knockout mice. For this purpose, 2-month-old mice were submitted to an intermittent fasting (IF) regimen (fasting every other day) over a 3-month period, which resulted in an overall 20 % reduction in food intake. Contrary to our expectation, epididymal and carcass fat depots and adipocyte size were significantly enlarged by 15, 72 and 68 %, respectively, in the IF mice compared with the ad libitum-fed mice. Accordingly, plasma levels of leptin were 50 % higher in the IF mice than in the ad libitum-fed mice. In addition, the IF mice showed increased plasma levels of total cholesterol (37 %), VLDL-cholesterol (195 %) and LDL-cholesterol (50 %). As expected, in wild-type mice, the IF regimen decreased plasma cholesterol levels and epididymal fat mass. Glucose homeostasis was also disturbed by the IF regimen in LDL-receptor knockout mice. Elevated levels of glycaemia (40 %), insulinaemia (50 %), glucose intolerance and insulin resistance were observed in the IF mice. Systemic inflammatory markers, TNF-α and C-reactive protein, were significantly increased and spontaneous atherosclerosis development were markedly increased (3-fold) in the IF mice. In conclusion, the IF regimen induced obesity and diabetes and worsened the development of spontaneous atherosclerosis in LDL-receptor knockout mice. Although being efficient in a wild-type background, this type of food restriction is not beneficial in the context of genetic hypercholesterolaemia.