Dolphins in captivity have to cope with severe changes in their environment. So far, there are few studies on the welfare of these animals under these conditions. The aim of the present study was to find if cortisol was present in the saliva of dolphins and to explore the possibility of performing serial, non-invasive cortisol assays in captive dolphins. Saliva was collected non-invasively during a month from four dolphins that had responded to previous training, in order to provide saliva samples, in two aquaria in Mexico City. In addition, serum and saliva time-matched samples were obtained in an aquarium in Nuevo Vallarta, Mexico. Cortisol concentrations in saliva and blood were measured by radioimmunoanalysis (RIA). Results show for the first time that measurable quantities of cortisol are secreted within the saliva of dolphins. Salivary cortisol measurements could be a useful tool for carrying out long-term cortisol sampling. It is far less invasive than blood-sampling and could be used, in conjunction with behavioural observations, to monitor the welfare of captive dolphins, non-invasively.

In the present study, the effects of social environment on the welfare of farmed silver fox cubs were clarified. After weaning, cubs from silver fox litters were housed (1) singly, (2) in litters until the end of September and thereafter singly, or (3) in litters throughout their growing season. Separating the cubs at the onset of the species' natural dispersal time may not be strictly beneficial for the cubs because it may limit the animals' possibilities to fulfil their needs for social behaviour. However, the lower incidence of bite wounds in both the single housed cubs and the cubs from litters that were split in autumn showed some beneficial effects of separating the cubs. The cubs that were group housed in litters for the whole time were focussed on their own social system, were more averse to human presence and showed greater responses to acute stress than the cubs that were single housed for at least part of the time. However, the serum cortisol level following adrenocorticotropic hormone administration suggested that cubs that were group housed in litters were less stressed over the long-term compared with the cubs that were single housed for at least part of the time; the low incidence of stereotypic behaviour in the cubs raised in litters also supports this hypothesis. Accordingly, and despite some unsolved questions regarding interpretation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity, the results from this present study show that social contacts were important for the welfare of silver fox cubs, and suggest that farmed silver fox cubs could possibly be raised in litters without jeopardising their welfare or deteriorating their fur quality.

In most European countries broilers are currently caught manually: broilers are caught by the leg, inverted and carried by a catcher with 3–4 birds in each hand. This method of catching broiler chickens is a welfare concern as it causes severe stress to the birds. A possible alternative to manual catching may be mechanical catching. The aim of this study was to compare the level of stress and injuries of broilers caught manually or with a harvesting machine (CIEMME Super Apollo L harvester) under commercial conditions. The results indicated that there was no significant difference in plasma corticosterone concentrations and duration of tonic immobility, which suggested that mechanically caught broilers were no more stressed than those caught manually. At the end of the catching process, mechanically caught broilers had even lower plasma corticosterone concentrations and shorter durations of tonic immobility, indicating that at this moment these broilers were less stressed than the manually caught birds. The incidence of wing haemorrhages was also reduced for broilers caught mechanically; however, there was no significant difference in the incidence of haemorrhages in the breast or legs between the two catching methods. As injuries are associated with pain and stress, this parameter is important not only for the welfare of the birds but also for product quality and the subsequent financial return. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of the mechanical harvesting machine, CIEMME Super Apollo L, appears to be a good alternative to manual catching. Nevertheless, some aspects of mechanical catching require further improvement.

Two experiments were carried out to determine the effect of different teeth resection methods on skin temperature, concentrations of the acute phase proteins C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum amyloid A (SAA), and cortisol in piglets. In Experiment 1, piglets from 60 litters were assigned to three treatments where the ‘needle’ teeth were clipped (CLIP), ground (GRIND) or left intact (INT) within 12 h of birth; skin temperature was measured immediately afterwards. Fourteen pigs were selected in each treatment for blood sampling at 1 day and 29 days-of-age for the determination of concentrations of CRP, SAA and cortisol. In Experiment 2, a 2 × 2 factorial design was used to determine the effect of teeth clipping and time spent out of the farrowing crate post-clipping on skin temperature. Piglets from 60 litters had their teeth clipped (CLIP) or left intact (INT) and were returned to the farrowing crate immediately or after 1 min. Skin temperature was measured after piglets were returned to the farrowing crate and after 10 min. In Experiment 1, CLIP and GRIND piglets had significantly lower skin temperatures than INT piglets; skin temperature was also significantly reduced in CLIP piglets in Experiment 2. Skin temperature did not differ between time-out groups. Plasma levels of CRP and SAA did not differ between treatments on day 1; however, concentrations of both proteins were significantly higher on day 29. CLIP pigs had significantly higher concentrations of CRP in comparison with GRIND pigs on day 29. Stress caused by teeth resection provoked a transient reduction in skin temperature. Furthermore, both resection methods caused infection and/or inflammation, but to a similar degree as that caused by leaving the teeth intact. These results indicate that the welfare of piglets is better in the short term if their teeth are left intact; however, if teeth resection is necessary grinding can be recommended in preference to clipping.

Aggression and agonism typically accompany the initial interactions exchanged between unfamiliar primates. As a part of a larger study examining the social function of scrotal colour in vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus), this paper offers experimental data to show how scrotal colour can influence aggression, and how artificial colour treatment can be used as an effective tool for managing aggression. Study animals were 81 vervet monkey pairs composed of 162 similarly-sized, unfamiliar adult males originating from non-adjacent parishes in Barbados. Non-contact and contact aggression were recorded on a continuous basis during 90 minute introductions. The main effects of the Test male scrotal colour, Stimulus male colour, and the interaction of the Test male and Stimulus male colours were not significant predictors of non-contact aggression. The effects of scrotal colouration of the Test male and Stimulus male were not significant predictors of contact aggression either, but there was a significant interaction effect; pairs of males with similar scrotal colour engaged in contact aggression more often than pairs of males differing in colour. Painting the scrotum dark led to more aggression when these males were paired with dark coloured males and less aggression when these males were paired with pale coloured males. These findings suggest a practical and inexpensive means of reducing the likelihood of aggression when introducing new animals. These results may also be applicable for other taxa that have colourful sexual skin, such as mandrills, drills, talapoins, patas monkeys, and many guenon species.

Chromosome substitution strains (also called consomic lines or strains) are strains in which a single, full-length chromosome from one inbred strain — the donor strain — has been transferred onto the genetic background of a second inbred strain — the host strain. Based on the results obtained from behavioural tests with the two parental strains, the minimum number of animals from each of the host and consomic strains that are required for a successful behavioural genetic analysis can be estimated. Correct application of statistical knowledge can lead to a further reduction in the number of animals used in behavioural genetic experiments using chromosome substitution strains.

Potential biochemical indicators of long-term undernutrition in cattle, which could be used objectively, reliably and routinely, were investigated by evaluating frequently analysed metabolites in cattle. In an initial study, a meta-regression of literature data for glucose, urea, non-esterifed fatty acids (NEFA) and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) against body condition score (BCS), body weight (BW) and its change (BWC) was conducted. The credible intervals of the gradients included zero for all regressions, showing that there were no significant relationships between any of the blood metabolites and BCS, BW or BWC across the 13 included studies. In a second study, fresh field samples from nine herds of adequately-nourished suckler cows and stored samples from two herds of suckler cows, which had experienced severe undernutrition, were analysed for serum albumin, total protein, urea, BHB, NEFA, creatinine, fructosamine and globulin. Positive regressions with BCS were obtained for albumin and creatinine, and a negative regression with fructosamine/albumin ratio. With the threshold for detecting undernutrition set at ≥ 10.75 μmol g–1, the fructosamine/albumin ratio gave sensitivity and specif city of 100%. Therefore, it is probably necessary to combine several blood measures to obtain a valid assessment of the nutritional state of ruminants, and we advise against the use of a single plasma metabolite concentration in assessing the nutritional state and welfare of individual cows.

Meat from low-volume farm animals such as farmed deer and wild boar is currently widely available to the consumer within the UK. Despite a rapid growth in production of these species there is a paucity of research that focuses on their welfare. This paper reviews the current literature and legislation relating to the transport and slaughter of farmed deer, wild boar, ostriches, buffalo and bison in order to identify priorities for future research. Research on low-volume farm animals has focused on red deer and their welfare is safeguarded with comprehensive legislation and guidelines. Studies have indicated the importance of appropriately designed facilities and sympathetic handling of red deer to ensure humane slaughter with minimal stress. However, the impact of transport and slaughter on the welfare of other deer species has not been recorded and this should be recognised. Much research has been conducted on the welfare of ostriches during transport and at slaughter. However, many of the results are discordant and research is required to clarify, in particular, posture during transport and stunning methods. Research on the welfare of wild boar, buffalo and bison is scarce. Best practice for both transport and slaughter of these species needs further research and clarification within legislation. For the low-volume species discussed in this review, priorities for further research include (1) appropriate methods of handling to minimise stress during transport and slaughter; (2) identification/clarification of appropriate slaughter methods and (3) training of transport and abattoir personnel in handling and slaughter methods.

Approximately 1500 Minke whales are killed annually under permit from the International Whaling Commission (IWC). This hunt supports a modest industry in Norway and in Japan; however, the welfare of whales during hunting and killing is such a cause of concern that in 1980 the IWC formed a sub-group entitled ‘Working Group on Whale Killing Methods and Associated Welfare Issues’ devoted to discussing the issue. This commentary suggests that, when using the Norwegian penthrite grenade-tipped harpoon (‘Whalegrenade-99‘), it is necessary to hit a relatively well-defined target area in order to effect an immediately immobile, and presumed unconscious state in the Minke whale.

In rodents, cage cleaning increases cardiovascular and behavioural activity for several hours, which are commonly interpreted as stress responses. In mice, post-cleaning activity also includes aggression, which can cause serious injuries. This study was part of a long-term investigation into the effects of cage cleaning frequency on rat behaviour and welfare. Here we aimed to ascertain whether post-cleaning activity is stress- or aggression-related, thereby leading to recurrent acute reductions in welfare, or simply a result of non-aversive stimulation. Male Wistar (n = 160) and Sprague–Dawley (n = 160) rats, kept in four animal units, had their cages cleaned twice per week, once per week or once per fortnight, and were kept on one of two types of bedding. Behaviours were recorded in detail before and after cage cleaning for 20 weeks, as was the aversion-related Harderian gland secretion, chromodacryorrhoea (‘red tears‘). Cage cleaning caused decreased resting and increased feeding, walking, bedding manipulation and sheltering for at least 30 min after the disturbance. Skirmishing also increased markedly for 15 min after cleaning, but decreased thereafter to below baseline levels. Unlike in mice, all skirmishing was non-injurious and play-like. The frequency of cage cleaning did not affect the magnitude of this skirmishing peak, but rats that had their cages cleaned more frequently settled more quickly after cleaning. Surprisingly, chromodacryorrhoea decreased after cage cleaning; this could mean that rats find soiled cages stressful or alternatively, like many disturbances, cage cleaning might provoke frequent, curtailed bouts of grooming, thereby removing the secretion. Rats also manipulated aspen bedding more than paper bedding. Overall, we found no evidence that cage cleaning caused rats any acute decrease in welfare — a finding consistent with additional data we have obtained on the lack of preference by rats for soiled over clean cages, and a lack of long-term, behavioural and physiological responses to being cleaned frequently or infrequently.

As adult cats can often be difficult to re-home, they may spend long periods in rescue shelters where barren housing and inconsistent handling can reduce their welfare. In this study, 165 adult cats in an animal shelter in Vancouver, Canada, were assigned to four treatments. The Basic Single treatment reflected typical conditions in that particular shelter, with cats handled in an inconsistent manner by various staff and housed singly in relatively barren cages. Three alternative treatments involved more consistent, positive handling by only the experimenter and research assistants, plus three housing conditions: Enriched Single (individual cages with opportunities to perch and hide), Basic Communal (group housing with opportunity for each cat to have personal space), and Enriched Communal (group housing enriched to encourage play and cat – cat interaction). The Basic Single treatment had the lowest percentage adopted in 21 days (45% versus 69-76% for other treatment, and higher stress scores than other treatments. The three alternative treatments did not differ significantly on any measure. Cats euthanised for poor health showed higher stress levels when alive than other cats. In a questionnaire, most adopters cited certain behavioural/emotional traits (‘friendly’, ‘playful’, ‘happy’) as reasons for selecting cats; these were generally associated with lower stress scores. The results suggest that consistent handling combined with a range of improved housing options can improve the chances of adoption for adult cats, perhaps by reducing fear-related behaviours that make cats less attractive to adopters.

To define suitable holding conditions for fish used in experimental studies on food consumption and growth, the effect of cover on growth at two ration levels was quantified for immature individuals of two common, freshwater species: the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus: Gasterosteidae) and the European minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus: Cyprinidae). In the European minnow, the presence of cover significantly increased growth rates and also the rate of food consumption at ad libitum rations; however, cover had no significant effect on the growth of the threespine stickleback. In both species, fish fed ad libitum rations had higher growth rates than fish fed 4% of body weight per day. This study illustrates the need for species specific holding conditions and illustrates an approach to welfare using measurements of traits closely related to fitness.

Environmental enrichment by increasing foraging behaviour and providing food item choice are widely practised and generally accepted as effective methods for reducing stereotypic behaviour in captive animals. In this study, the effectiveness of increasing foraging patch choice and food item choice on reducing motor stereotypy in two captive vicugna were examined. For the purposes of the study, first, browse was added to the vicugna's enclosure as an additional forage item and, second, the vicugna's normal feed was divided: half being provided in the indoor quarters and half in the outdoor yard. The results revealed that providing browse as an additional forage item increased the observed stereotypic behaviour; however, dividing the vicugna's feed, and therefore increasing forage patch choice, decreased stereotypy. This study was limited because of the small sample size and because the area in which the vicugna were performing stereotypic behaviour was partially visually obscured. However, this study has implications for animal welfare because it highlights the need to evaluate the suitability of foraging enrichment items, and suggests that more research into accommodating the adaptive foraging behaviour of this species in captivity may be necessary.

Following the 2012 European ban (1999/74/EC) of conventional battery cages, only furnished cages will be allowed for laying hens. However, even when furnished cages provide a pecking and scratching area most dustbathing occurs on the wire floor. This study aimed to investigate whether laying hens showed a preference for dustbathing on a covered wire floor rather than a conventional wire floor. Eight groups of 10 hens were housed in pairs of adjoining furnished cages. All hens were leg-ringed for individual identification. Each pair of cages consisted of one cage containing a wire floor covered with perforated Astroturf and a second cage containing a conventional wire floor, joined by a pophole through which hens had unrestricted access. Initial scan samples were taken to investigate the general behaviour of the hens on each floor type. Dustbathing was observed more frequently on Astroturf and no other behaviours were affected by the floor type. Scans were subsequently taken at 5 min intervals between 1130h and 1600h for 10 days, identifying the number of hens, and which individual hens, were dustbathing on each floor type. Data were analysed on a per cage basis, using the binomial sign test. A strong preference was found for dustbathing on Astroturf flooring that was apparent in all cages. Furthermore, the distribution of hens indicated this was not attributable to any overall preference for either floor type but was specific to periods when hens were dustbathing. This demonstrates that there is the potential to include Astroturf in the design of furnished cages, as a dustbathing substrate, in order to improve the welfare of laying hens.

A key question in the management of group-housed captive animals is how long can an individual be removed from a social group and still be reintroduced with minimal social upheaval. In order to answer this question we require a knowledge of how long cage-mates, following a specified period of group-housing, can remember one another after separation. This issue was investigated in laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus). Rats were group-housed for 18 days before being housed individually. One hour, 48 hr, and 96 hr after separation, they were exposed simultaneously to odour cues originating from unfamiliar rats and from former cage-mates. The rats spent significantly more time investigating the unfamiliar odour 1 hr and 48 hr, but not 96 hr, after separation, suggesting that, after 18 days of group-housing, juvenile rats remember former cage-mates for between 48 and 96 hr. The implications of this result for animal welfare are discussed.

This paper describes a two-part study of small predators in New Zealand forests. First, during 12 days of live-trapping, 31 wild ship rats were captured, tagged and released: 9 were handled while anaesthetised using halothane and 22 were handled while conscious using gloves. There was a significant difference between the two groups of ship rats in live-recapture rate: 4 out of 9 rats that had been handled while anaesthetised were recaptured alive, compared with 0 of 22 that were handled while conscious. Second, during 12 days of removal-trapping, 23 ship rats were killed, of which 6 were tagged, including 4 of the 9 that had been previously handled while anaesthetised (2 of which had also been recaptured alive during the live-trapping) and 2 that had previously been handled while conscious. These observations have implications for the statistical estimation of population density from capture-mark-recapture data and for the development of protocols for minimising stress in captured animals, especially nocturnal species released from traps in daylight.

Behavioural problems directly affect the welfare of dogs and cats. The existence of a behavioural problem is a factor in the euthanasia and relinquishment of animals to shelters — a significant proportion of companion animals that are abandoned and euthanased are attributed to behavioural problems. Some behavioural problems are linked to stress and anxiety. In order to prevent and treat behavioural problems it is essential to have good epidemiological data. Most studies regarding the prevalence of behavioural problems use data from veterinary behaviourists. To our knowledge, no studies regarding the prevalence of small animal behavioural problems have been conducted in Spain. Therefore, a study was designed to estimate different aspects of canine and feline behavioural problems in Spain from the perspective of the veterinary practitioner. Of 433 valid questionnaires returned during a six month period, 46.2% of veterinarians referred cases to veterinary behaviourists and 12.3% to dog trainers; 34.7% never referred cases. Destructiveness, aggression and house soiling were the most frequent complaints regarding behavioural problems in dogs, whereas house soiling was clearly considered the main behavioural complaint in cats, followed by furniture scratching and excessive vocalisation. Behavioural modification was considered the most effective treatment for dogs, followed by drugs and castration. In cats the most effective treatment was castration, followed by drug therapy and behavioural modification.

The aim of this study was to determine whether or not oestrus induction on the day of weaning would reduce the distress experienced by ewes upon separation from lambs. For this, 43 ewes, their eight week-old lambs and six mature rams were used. Prior to weaning, 21 of these ewes were induced to display oestrus on the day of mother-young separation (treated group [T]) while the remaining 22 untreated ewes served as controls (C). T and C ewes were housed together. Blood samples were collected on the day of weaning (prior to mother-young separation and 24 hours later) and then nine days later, for plasma progesterone (P4) and cortisol determination. Lambs were separated from their dams by a wire fence at weaning in full view of each other. Three rams were tethered to posts with 3 m plastic chains in the ewes' pen. T and C groups were simultaneously tested in identical test pens. C ewes showed a greater increase in serum cortisol concentration after separation from lambs (47.64 ± 4.26 n mol l–1) than T ewes (28.79 ± 6.29 n mol l–1). T ewes exhibited fewer vocalisations ewe–1h–1 and fewer vocalisations at 6, 12 and 18 h post separation than C ewes. On the day of weaning, more T ewes were seen to be situated away from lambs and in close proximity to the males, compared to the C group. Thus, more T than C ewes were mounted (14 as opposed to 3) and these received a greater number of mounts (1.02 ± 0.23 per hour, as opposed to 0.11 ± 0.06). It was concluded that by inducing ewes into oestrus at weaning it is possible to reduce the signs of separation distress.