Conventional cages for laying hens have many disadvantages for welfare and there have been widespread calls for them to be banned. However, they also have advantages: in particular, they house the birds in small groups. Modified designs intended to reduce the disadvantages while retaining the advantages have included the get-away cage (providing perches and other facilities for up to 60 birds), but these designs have not yet had much success. The Edinburgh project on modified cages has adopted a stage-by-stage, systematic approach to cage design. Recommendations include increased area and height compared to conventional cages, and inclusion of a perch, a nest box and a dust bath. Current trials combine all these features in designs with commercial potential One remaining welfare problem is restriction of locomotion, with associated effects on bone strength However, alternative, non-cage husbandry systems for laying hens also have welfare problems, including those associated with large group sizes, and these problems may be worse than those in modified cages. Probably most important is the risk of cannibalism - or the practice of beak trimming to prevent it. Rather than banning cages, it might be more appropriate for legislation to specify the facilities which should be provided for laying hens.

In the current state of development of alternative systems, modifying cages for laying hens could on balance be more beneficial to welfare than banning them.

Domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) are often housed indoors both singly and in groups. However, there is a lack of studies dealing with cat-cat relationships, group composition and effects of environmental parameters on the well-being of privately-owned cats. One way to index the effects of stressful situations is to measure glucocorticoid levels, as glucocorticoids are released from the adrenal cortex in response to stress-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Therefore, we investigated the influence of single and group housing on basal urinary cortisol levels of indoor-only domestic cats in private households, taking into account dominance status and environmental parameters. Urine samples were collected non-invasively by owners from six single-housed cats and six alpha-omega animal pairs of multi-cat households. Dominance status in group-housed cats was determined by competition test series. Additionally, we compared cortisol levels of privately-owned cats with those of shelter cats. Results showed that basal urinary cortisol levels of cats in private households are neither influenced by housing style (single cat vs multi cat) nor by individuals' dominance status. Correlations indicated a positive influence of human density, number of persons per household, and number of m2 available to cats on basal urinary cortisol levels, whereas cat-related parameters such as number of cats per household, number of m2 per cat, and number of persons per cat, did not have any significant influence on basal urinary cortisol levels. A comparison of basal urinary cortisol levels of privately-owned and shelter cats revealed no influence of location (private household, shelter) and group type (single, group [dominant or subordinate]) on basal urinary cortisol levels. This study is the first to investigate basal urinary cortisol levels of domestic cats in private households and an animal shelter considering housing style, dominance status, and environmental parameters.

To determine whether lame broilers are in pain it is necessary to compare measures of lameness and mobility before and after analgesic treatment. Such measures should not be unduly affected by other bird characteristics. This study assessed the performance of lame (gait score, GS 3-4) and non-lame (GS 0-1) broilers using two mobility tests: (i) a novel test to assess broiler ability to access resources when housed in groups (Group Obstacle test); and (ii) a Latency-to-Lie (LTL) test. Outcome test measures included number of obstacle crossings, latency to cross an obstacle, and time taken to sit in shallow water. Associations between outcome test measures and other bird characteristics (established lameness risk-factors), including strain, sex, age, mass, contact dermatitis and pathology, were also investigated. The performance of high-GS and low-GS broilers differed in both mobility tests and no other bird characteristics were as consistent a predictor as lameness. This demonstrates that mobility impairments are closely related to lameness assessed using GS, and that there is a component of lameness that cannot be explained by other bird characteristics (eg being male and heavy). This component may represent pain or discomfort. Both mobility tests are suitable for further application with analgesic testing to classify lameness-associated pain in broilers.

There is very little known about the post-release survival of hand-reared pipistrelle bats Pipistrellus spp). We radio-tracked 12 pipistrelle bats, hand-reared and released under three different protocols: i) limited pre-release flight training and overwintering (n = 5); ii) prolonged pre-release flight training, but with limited space (n = 2) and iii) prolonged pre-release flight training in large flight cage (n = 5). Of the five bats reared under the first protocol, four were recovered, grounded, within 48 h and the signal from the fifth bat lost on day two, due either to tag failure or from the bat flying out of the study area. Both bats in the second group flew strongly on the night of release but on the second and third nights only one emerged and flew briefly. The signals from both bats remained stationary on subsequent nights. In contrast, bats from the third group were tracked for between five and ten nights, indicating that they were able to survive independently following release. These preliminary results suggest that post-release survival depends on extensive pre-release conditioning in a large flight cage, rather than the limited flight opportunities traditionally provided within domestic houses by bat carers. Other factors that may affect post-release survival are discussed and further work is encouraged to determine whether rehabilitated bats integrate with the local population.

While regular monitoring of stun quality in abattoirs is now required by EU law, guidelines specific to species and stun method have not been adequately developed. Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas stunning of pigs in groups is widely used because of efficiency and reduced pre-slaughter stress. However, some pigs may recover from the stun process if it is not correctly managed. In light of these concerns, this study aimed to develop and implement a standardised assessment for stun quality for use in commercial pig abattoirs. Eight abattoirs and 9,520 slaughter pigs were assessed for stun group size, stick time and stun quality. The stun system, CO2 concentrations and exposure times were also investigated. A stun-quality protocol (SQP) identified and risk-rated symptoms signifying recovery of consciousness. In abattoirs using paternoster stun-boxes, pigs consistently showed no stun-quality problems despite 65% with stick times between 70 and 100 s. Stun-quality problems were detected in 1.7 to 3.3% of pigs in abattoirs using dip-lift stun-boxes and 75% of stick times were below 60 s. In 36 of 38 cases of inadequately stunned pigs, a combination of symptoms from the SQP was seen. Regular gasping preceded other symptoms in 31 cases and was a valid indicator of inadequate stunning. In response to the stun-quality assessments, two abattoirs serviced the stun machines (increasing CO2 concentrations and exposure times). All pigs were adequately stunned in follow-up studies. Implementation of stun-quality assessments, such as developed in this study, can assure monitoring of animal welfare at slaughter, beneficial not only to the industry and relevant authorities but also the concerned consumer.

In humans, empathy has emotional and cognitive components, both of which are linked to caring and nurturant behaviour. Variations in each of these facets of empathy were likely to have been accessible to natural selection during the evolution of Homo, although the likely details of their respective adaptive values has so far only been considered in the context of intraspecific (human-human) behaviour. We propose that evolutionary psychology may provide a useful additional framework for examining why humans feel empathy for certain animals but not others. Phobias towards noxious animals, such as snakes and spiders, have been explained in terms of gene-culture co-evolution, but the possibility of an analogous ‘biophilia’ directed towards other animals has received less attention. The redirection of primarily intraspecific nurturant behaviour towards the young of non-human species may be a general human trait since it is practiced in a wide variety of cultures, including hunter-gatherers, and may arise from the merging of natural history and social intelligences that the archaeologist Steven Mithen suggests evolved ~100,000 years before present (YBP). The visual stimuli that evoke such nurturant behaviour, Lorenz's ‘Kindschenschema’, or ‘cuteness’, have been compared with the super-stimuli whereby parasitic cuckoos induce care-giving from their hosts, but recent evidence suggests that human females of childbearing age are especially sensitised to respond most strongly to characteristics of human infants, and may correspondingly become less attracted towards ‘cute’ animals. It is also possible that during human prehistory, the ability to care for young animals was selected for, in adolescent females, as an honest indicator of future quality as a mother. An ability to empathise with animals may also have given certain individuals and/or groups of kin an evolutionary advantage in hunting, and subsequently herding and domesticating, animals. Concern for animal welfare may therefore stem from an evolved human trait, even though its degree and extent of expression are undoubtedly strongly influenced by culture.

Current alterations in the farm environment, such as a reduced number of farm workers, may mean that sheep genotypes that are highly dependent on man for nutritional and reproductive success will experience poorer welfare within that environment. In the past 30 years, average flock size has doubled, and flocks of over 1,000 ewes managed by one stockperson are common. The reduction in the ratio of stockpeople to sheep affects animal welfare, with less time for tasks such as healthcare and inspection. It has also led to increased interest in the development of new genotypes that are better able to look after themselves. Selection and management of sheep to promote behaviours associated with survival, and selection of robust animals that require less human intervention for good welfare, are important breeding goals. As these animals will receive less inspection at close quarters, selection for resistance to disease will have significant animal welfare benefits. In addition, the development of sheep lines that require little or no intervention at lambing will be important. In areas where wool is not valuable, the use of wool-shedding breeds to avoid the stress associated with shearing, and to reduce the incidence of flystrike are already proving to be beneficial. Importantly, this selection should not be interpreted as providing no care to these animals, and careful management during the production of these genotypes is needed to avoid at least transient welfare problems where genotypes and environment (eg lower shepherding) are mismatched.

Since 1999, animal welfare auditing programmes that utilise five numerically scored core criteria have been used successfully by major restaurant chains to monitor animal welfare in slaughter plants. They had to achieve specific numerical scores in order to remain on the approved supplier list. The five numerically scored criteria (critical control points) are: i) Percentage of animals that fall down during handling; ii) Percentage of animals moved with an electric prod; iii) Percentage of cattle or pigs vocalising in the stunning box or restrainer; iv) Percentage of animals stunned effectively with one application of the stunner; and v) Percentage rendered insensible when hoisted to the bleed rail (has to be 100% to pass the audit). Audit data collected in 2010 by two restaurant companies in 30 beef plants, indicated that 77% of them effectively stunned 100 to 99% of the cattle with a single shot from a captive-bolt gun. All 30 plants passed the audit, which required 95% of more of the cattle stunned with one shot. In eight pork plants with electric stunning, the tongs were placed correctly on 100% of the pigs held in a V-conveyor restrainer. In 95% of the beef plants, and 86% of 25 pork plants, 0% of the animals fell during unloading, movement in the lairage and during handling in the stunning area. In 81% of the beef plants and 77% of the pork plants, 5% or less of the animals were moved with an electric prod. The percentage of cattle vocalising in the stun box and during movement into the stun box was 3% or less in all the plants except one. All scores are per animal, an animal is stunned correctly in the first shot, or not stunned correctly. It either vocalises or it is silent. A passing score is required on all five of the numerically scored core criteria. Due to financial and time constrains, the same auditor assesses both welfare and food safety. Workshops for training auditors last 1.5 days and include two plant visits.

Efficient stunning is essential for the welfare of animals destined for slaughter. Several studies have dictated certain signs as reliable for the assessment of stunning efficiency in cattle. However, there is still a lack of data concerning the viability of these signs. The aim of the following study was to assess stunning efficiency at a slaughterhouse, studying the relationship between age, sex and breed of cattle and the efficiency of stunning and determining the feasibility of the following signs in assessing stunning efficiency: immediate collapse, muscle spasms, rhythmic breathing, rotation of the eyeballs, painful response to ear or nose pinch, vocalisation and muscle tone of the ears. Cattle were observed immediately after stunning and hoisting onto the bleed rail. Results showed that stunning efficiency decreased with age, was greater in females than males (for animals greater than 12 months of age) and was superior in ‘dairy’ compared to ‘beef’ cattle at all age ranges. Presence of ear muscle tone, absence of muscular spasms, presence of rhythmic breathing, and vocalisation were the most common signs of inefficient stunning recorded in the present study. Recognition of the most frequently occurring signs associated with inefficient stunning will point out the need for re-stunning, preventing animals from regaining sensibility.

The effect of varied cultural traditions on concepts of animal welfare appears to be a novel issue, growing out of recent societal concerns with globalisation, multi-culturalism, and diversity. In more imperialistic times, Western culture cared little about such issues. Upon reflection, however, it is apparent that this is not a new issue, as even within our culture the concept of welfare has been variously defined, based on differences in values in general and ethics in particular, varying enormously with different views of the moral status of animals. A most dramatic example of this can be found in production agriculture's view that (to paraphrase) ‘the animal is experiencing good welfare when it fulfils the human (production) purpose for which it is kept’, as expressed in the Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) report of 1981. Clearly, an animal welfare advocate opposed to confinement agriculture would have expressed a very different view. If the concept of animal welfare is both intra- and cross-culturally varied, how then does one resolve differences? The answer may be found in what I have termed the ‘new social ethic for animals’ that is fairly uniform across Western societies, as I explain in this paper. In essence, the new ethic focusses on satisfying animals' needs dictated by their telos or biological nature. Insofar as Western democratic societies dictate to the rest of the world, which is economically dependent upon them, we will see this animal ethic achieve global hegemony, much as the notion of human rights has become globally ubiquitous as an ideal.

Merino ewes have been selected, over 18 generations, for calm (C) or nervous (N) temperament using using an arena test and an isolation box test. We investigated the relative contributions of genotype versus the post-partum behaviour of the dam on the temperament of the lambs using a cross-fostering procedure. Forty-eight multiparous calm and 52 nervous ewes were artificially inseminated with the semen of a sire of the same temperament. At birth, 32 lambs of a given temperament line were cross fostered to ewes from the other line (16 N × C, 16 C × N), 34 lambs were cross fostered to ewes from the same line (15 C × C, 19 N × N) and 30 lambs were left with their birth mother (15 C, 15 N), to control for the effect of cross fostering. The temperament of the progeny was assessed at two occasions, one week after birth by measuring locomotor activity during an open-field test and at weaning (16 weeks) by measuring locomotor activity during an arena test and agitation score measured during an isolation box test. There was a genotype effect but no maternal or fostering effect on the lamb temperament at one week. This may be because the maternal behaviour of the foster ewes did not differ considerably between the calm and nervous mothers during adoption or within the first week, post partum. Similarly, at weaning, only a genotype effect was found on the locomotor and agitation score. Therefore, it appears that temperament in Merino sheep is mainly determined by the genetic transmission of the trait across generations rather than behaviours learned from the mother.

Developmental instability, of which fluctuating asymmetry is the most commonly used and recommended measure, has recently been claimed to be an objective, integrated and retrospective indicator of animal welfare. The theoretical and empirical grounds for these claims are reviewed. In theory, carefully selected composite indices of fluctuating asymmetry are valid indicators of animal welfare in the sense that they reflect the ability of the developmental processes of an animal, with a given genetic constitution, to cope with environmental stressors. Relevant scientific experiments are scant and are mainly restricted to poultry, but they are on the increase and they largely support the application of developmental instability for assessing animal welfare. A scheme for monitoring farm animal welfare based purely on measures of developmental instability would have important advantages, but cannot be recommended yet. It cannot be ruled out that certain factors are clearly relevant to the welfare status of an animal but do not notably/proportionally affect its morphogenesis. Moreover, such a monitoring scheme would not be appropriate for applications with an emphasis on problem analysis/management.

Animal welfare scientists actively seek reliable and practical metrics that can serve as indicators of animal welfare for use with agricultural, laboratory and zoo-housed animals. Behavioural diversity as a welfare concept originated from early welfare scientists linking poor animal welfare with a high proportion of time spent engaged in stereotyped behaviours and little expression of behaviours that would be expected under wild, or natural conditions. Recently, the concept of behavioural diversity as a welfare indicator has been widely adopted and is frequently quantified by the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H-index). However, the H-Index is fraught with theoretical and mathematical limitations when applied to animal welfare. Four key problems with this metric are demonstrated: the metric's responsivity to the size of the behavioural repertoire and the underlying assumption that larger behavioural repertoires reflect better welfare, the sensitivity of the metric to arbitrary decisions about the resolution of behavioural categories, the fact that the calculation of the metric is agnostic to the valence of behaviours, and the metric's susceptibility to the common practice of excluding some behavioural categories. Moving forward, we recommend focusing on validated welfare measures that are sensitive to valence when evaluating animal welfare.

A number of studies have investigated anticipatory behaviour in animals as a measure of sensitivity to reward or as an expression of emotional state. A common feature of many studies is that they base inferences on seemingly arbitrary measures, for example, the frequency of behavioural transitions (ie number of times an animal switches between different behaviours). This paper critically reviews the literature and discusses various hypotheses for why specific behavioural responses occur in the anticipatory period between the signal and reward in conditioned animals. We argue that the specific behaviours shown may be the result of superstitious learning and thus highly variable, leaving behavioural transitions as the only response that can be scored consistently, and that sometimes these responses may relate more to frustration than to a positive emotional state. Finally, we propose new research approaches to avoid potential confounds and improve future studies on this topic.

Most farm assurance schemes in the UK at least, in part, aim to provide assurances to consumers and retailers of compliance with welfare standards. Inclusion of welfare outcome assessments into the relevant inspection procedures provides a mechanism to improve animal welfare within assurance schemes. In this study, taking laying hens as an example, we describe a process for dealing with the practical difficulties in achieving this in two UK schemes; Freedom Food and Soil Association. The key challenges arise from selecting the most appropriate measures, defining sampling strategies that are feasible and robust, ensuring assessors can deliver a consistent evaluation and establishing a mechanism to achieve positive change. After a consultation exercise and pilot study, five measures (feather cover, cleanliness, aggressive behaviour, management of sick or injured birds, and beak trimming) were included within the inspection procedures of the schemes. The chosen sampling strategy of assessing 50 birds without handling provided reasonable certainty at a scheme level but less certainty at an individual farm level. Despite the inherent limitations within a time and cost sensitive certification assessment, the approach adopted does provide a foundation for welfare improvement by being able to highlight areas of concern requiring attention, enabling schemes to promote the use of outcome scoring as a management tool, promoting the dissemination of relevant technical information in a timely manner and increasing the scrutiny of standards important for the welfare of the birds.

To-date, the dominant approach to improving farm animal welfare has consisted of a combination of voluntary improvements undertaken by farmers and the tightening of legal requirements. However, history suggests that there is a limit to the improvements capable of being secured by this approach. In this paper, it is argued that economic principles can and should have an important role when new, market-driven and other approaches are set up to improve farm animal welfare. The paper focuses on two ways in which economic principles can improve analyses of animal welfare. The first is by helping to define priorities as to which aspects of animal welfare should be promoted. Here, economic approaches can be used to capture and synthesise the perspectives of all the stakeholders, including the animals, in a transparent and systematic way. The second way is by helping to ensure that incentives are set up in the right way. Where the benefits and costs of improving animal welfare are initially distributed unevenly across stakeholders so that a socially desirable situation will not develop automatically, or be implemented, suitable economic principles may help to create incentives which correct this situation. Thus, if society is to achieve its goal of improving animal welfare, scholars from different disciplines should collaborate in identifying animal needs, assessing stakeholder preferences, making priorities transparent and providing incentives that make solutions realistically attainable.

In commercial pig production, piglets are often mixed after weaning which can result in severe aggression and lead to body damage, disruption of feeding behaviour and reduced growth. This experiment investigated whether application of a synthetic maternal pheromone to groups of weaned pigs in commercial housing would affect the level of aggression and skin lesions sustained after mixing. Two treatments (Pheromone and Control) were used with 16 replicate pens of pigs (20 pigs per pen). Treatments were applied on the day of weaning (average 28 days of age) on a per room basis in alternate weeks. In Pheromone pens, after routine washing and disinfection, the walls and feeders were treated one hour prior to occupation with a synthetic pheromone at a rate of 1.0 ml pig−1. Control pens were as for Pheromone except no product was applied. During the 24-h period, post mixing, pigs in pheromone-treated pens spent significantly less time fighting than those in control pens. This was reflected in reduced injury scores 24 h after mixing, with pigs in pheromone-treated pens having 39% fewer skin lesions on the front of the body compared to those in control pens. Treatment had no effect on growth rate or feed efficiency, although the feed intake for days 7–28 was significantly lower and feed efficiency tended to be lower in pheromone-treated pens. In conclusion, application of a synthetic maternal pheromone can be considered one of the arsenal of strategies to reduce aggression and safeguard the welfare of groups of weaned pigs where mixing is unavoidable.

Isoeugenol (17 mg AQUI-S™ L−1), nitrogen, and three levels of carbon dioxide (low: 70-80, medium: 180-250 and high: > 400 mg CO2 L−1) were tested as stunning agents for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fasted for six days. All methods were tested under optimised conditions (starting with rested fish, and stunning and recovery under good water quality conditions). The fish were assessed in relation to behaviour and stress in terms of blood chemistry and muscle biochemistry. Only isoeugenol fulfilled all of our set criteria related to fish welfare and stress as it: (i) minimised aversive reactions upon exposure and ability to render the fish unconscious; (ii) showed no recovery during a period of 10 min post stunning; and (iii) achieved minimal muscle activity (good muscle quality). The fish treated with nitrogen showed the strongest aversive reactions, produced the most stressed fish, and fish that did not appear to be sedated. Nitrogen stunning cannot therefore be recommended. None of the levels of carbon dioxide fulfilled all criteria. When exposed to high and medium levels, fish exhibited aversive reactions and became considerably stressed. At the low level, changes in behaviour and stress were modest, but in such cases the fish were not sufficiently immobilised to facilitate easy handling in a possible pre-stunning context. No level of carbon dioxide rendered the fish unconscious. Even under optimised stunning conditions, the use of carbon dioxide cannot be recommended in connection with slaughter of Atlantic salmon.

This paper will try to answer the question of whether animals can suffer.

My aim is, firstly, to discuss whether or not an irreflexive animal consciousness could experience suffering. I do this because there are authors who assume such a consciousness in animals. The second part of this contribution concerns the question of the cognitive and neural prerequisites which have to be present in order to give consciousness, or the suffering experience, a positive fitness value. Further, I analyse for which animals these brain structures and cognitive capacities have been described, since consciousness and suffering can only be expected in these animals.

In order to answer the questions, several assumptions had to be made. If the assumptions are correct than the results of the various analyses demonstrate that: i) an irreflexive consciousness is unable to experience suffering; and ii) animal suffering may, for the time being, only be expected in the anthropoid apes. However, there is an important difference between the registration of pain as a stimulus, which does not induce feelings of suffering, and the experience of pain as an emotion, which does induce suffering. According to the arguments presented in this contribution, the experience of pain as a stimulus could be expected in far more species than anthropoid apes alone.