The Welfare Quality® project aims to develop a European on-farm welfare assessment standard for pigs, amongst other species. A prototype monitoring system was developed for sows and piglets using predominantly animal-based measures of behaviour, health and physiology to assess welfare. The prototype monitoring system was evaluated on a total of 82 farms in the UK and The Netherlands, encompassing a wide variety of farming systems. Preliminary analysis of the data indicates that the incidence of clinical welfare problems were low, with 1.2, 0.8, 1.1 and 0.1%, respectively of pregnant and lactating sows recorded as having substantial skin lesions, bursitis and vulval lesions, and extremely poor body condition. Some clinical problems were more prevalent in certain types of feeding system than others, particularly the severity of vulval lesions with electronic sow feeding (ESF) systems. Fear of humans, assessed by the extent of withdrawal behaviour from an unknown human, was low, and median scores were similar for sows housed in groups indoors, outdoors and in stalls. Some form of stereotyped behaviour was observed on almost 75% of farms visited, with sham chewing the most commonly recorded stereotyped behaviour. System design affected the practicality of some measures, particularly on outdoor farms. Full investigation of the complete data set will enable a refined, final, on-farm monitoring system to be developed and benchmark standards established.

In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on the study and assessment of animal welfare in captive settings, such as zoological gardens and aquaria. Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) are a relatively common species in zoos, yet are known to exhibit frequent reproductive problems in captive environments. We provide an exploratory analysis of housing and husbandry factors that are associated with patterns of adrenocortical activity in lynx. Adrenocortical activity was assessed using the non-invasive technique of monitoring faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM). First, we calculated baseline FGM values for each individual and controlled for sex, age class, and reproductive status. The residual values were used to determine how levels of adrenocortical activity correlated with institutional husbandry practices. Second, we compared the occurrence of FGM peaks to events and disturbances recorded by keepers. Our results highlighted that adrenocortical activity is strongly correlated with: (i) the size of the enclosure; (ii) the number of hiding locations available; and (iii) the social environment. Based on our findings, we recommend that lynx should generally be housed alone (unless with dependant offspring or temporarily paired up for mating purposes), in larger enclosures and with the provision of several species-appropriate hiding locations.

The effectiveness of electrical water bath stunning of broilers (n = 96) for 1 s with a constant average current of 100, 150 or 200 mA delivered using a variable voltage/constant current stunner with 200, 800 or 1400 Hz pulsed direct current (DC), with a mark:space ratio of 1:1, followed by slaughter using a unilateral or ventral neck cutting procedure, was evaluated. The results of a binary logistic model showed that both the electrical frequency and average current had significant effects on the probability of inducing epileptiform electroencephalogram (EEG) and therefore, of effective stunning. The results of univariate analysis showed that only slaughter method had highly significant effects on the power contents in the 13–30 Hz and 2–30 Hz EEG frequency bands. Based on these results, it is recommended that a minimum of 200 mA average (400 mA peak) current per bird should be delivered using 200 Hz pulsed DC, with a mark:space ratio of 1:1, to achieve effective water bath stunning in 80% of broilers. Frequencies of above 200 Hz pulsed DC would presumably require average currents of greater than 200 mA. Electrical water bath stunning of broilers with 200 mA average current of 200 Hz resulted in cardiac arrest in six out of eight broilers that showed epileptiform activity. Two other broilers that had cardiac arrest showed no epileptiform EEGs indicative of effective stunning. Owing to the prevalence of cardiac arrest in conscious broilers, the use of pulsed DC for water bath stunning of broilers could be questioned on ethical and bird welfare grounds.

There are accumulating international data in a number of livestock industries that show that a negative attitude by stockpeople towards interacting with pigs, dairy cattle and poultry is correlated with increased levels of fear and stress in farm animals and in turn reduced animal productivity. While most of this research has been on-farm, one study has shown similar attitude-behaviour correlations in a pig abattoir. The major aim of this research was to examine the stockperson attitude-behaviour at sheep and cattle abattoirs. Twenty-two Australian abattoirs participated in the collection of stockperson attitudes and behaviour (81 stockpeople — 35 cattle stockpeople and 46 sheep stockpeople; six abattoirs slaughtering cattle, six slaughtering sheep and ten slaughtering both cattle and sheep). Several significant correlations between stockperson attitudes and behaviour were detected. In particular, the perceived pressures imposed by perceived lack of control over their actions, perceived time constraints, perceived effect of poor facilities and inappropriate beliefs about arousing livestock were all associated with frequent use of forceful handling behaviours by the stockperson. These results were similar to observations in pig abattoirs that have been reported previously. These relationships at cattle and sheep abattoirs indicate that there may be an opportunity to improve stockperson behaviour and consequently reduce stress in sheep and cattle at abattoirs by targeting attitudes (and behaviour) for improvement, with appropriate educational and training material in a way that is similar to the uses of such training with livestock species in farm settings.

Within two London parks, Richmond and Bushy, both subject to high public visitor pressure, behavioural observations were undertaken to investigate patterns of habitat use by red and fallow deer populations, and to determine the response of the deer to human disturbance. Potentially disturbing events were considered as: i. people present within a distance of < 50m; ii. people present within 50m accompanied by a dog on a lead; iii dogs within 50m off the lead; iv. people ‘crowding’ the deer - approaching directly and deliberately for photographs or closer observation; v. actual chases by a dog of the deer group or a member of that group.

All the above levels of disturbance caused a measurable change in the immediate behaviour patterns of the deer - reflected in increased levels of vigilance. Females responded more strongly than males of either species. However, the effects were relatively minor and transient in the great majority of cases, with animals resuming their normal activity very quickly after the encounter.

Overall daily time-budgets did not differ significantly between undisturbed days and days when disturbance levels were high; nor were any effects apparent on patterns of habitat use by the deer or in forcing the animals to change habitat more frequently. Further, throughout our studies there was no evidence that levels of disturbance caused by public access had any deleterious effects on body-weights or overwinter mortality.

The opportunity to perform play behaviour may be an important ontogenic activity that stimulates behavioural variability and may enhance an individual's coping capacity later in life. Play behaviour in juveniles may be enhanced by the presence of cage enrichments relevant to the animal's motivations and natural behavioural repertoire. The present study aimed to investigate play behaviour in juvenile farmed mink reared and housed with the cage enrichments standard for the Dutch housing system (ie a cylinder and platform) and in an experimental group of animals with the same standard enrichments but with additional access to swimming water. Juvenile mink with access to swimming water played significantly more in the main cage than mink reared and housed with the cylinder and platform but without swimming water. The results suggest that swimming water presents the animals with biologically relevant stimuli that directly or indirectly influence the development of play behaviour. Specific implications for the animals' long-term welfare are discussed. Future studies should elucidate the effects of juvenile play on the occurrence of abnormal behavioural patterns in adulthood more precisely and more thoroughly.

Wild badgers (Meles meles) in Wytham woods, Oxfordshire, are routinely trapped, transported to a central field laboratory, studied and released as part of an on-going population study. These procedures have been carefully developed to minimise impact on the badgers' welfare; however they are potentially stressful, and, as part of our on-going welfare refinements, and our exploration to develop methods for quantifying stress in wild mammals, we studied the effects of transport stress on neutrophil activation in wild trapped badgers. Blood samples were obtained from 28 badgers. We compared three transport regimes: transported (n = 9), transported and rested for at least 30 mins (n = 11), and not transported (n = 8). Total and differential white cell counts were carried out and neutrophil activation was measured by the nitroblue tetrazolium test. Our goal was primarily to validate neutrophil activity as an indicator of stress, on the basis that the transport treatment was expected to be more stressful than the non-transport treatment. There were significant increases in % activated circulating neutrophils in response to transport. This study supports the proposition that stress affects circulating neutrophil numbers and the state of their activation, as determined by the nitroblue tetrazolium reduction assay, and therefore adds weight to the idea that neutrophil activation is a potential measure of stress in wild animals.

Animal hoarding is considered to be an under-reported problem, which affects the welfare of both people and animals. Few published studies on animal hoarding are available in the scientific literature, particularly outside North America. The present study was designed to obtain data on animal hoarding in Spain, with a particular focus on animal welfare issues. Data were obtained retrospectively from 24 case reports of animal hoarding involving a total of 1,218 dogs and cats and 27 hoarders. All cases were the result of legal intervention by a Spanish humane society during the period from 2002 to 2011. Hoarders could be characterised as elderly, socially isolated men and women who tended to hoard only one species (dog or cat). Most cases presented a chronic course of more than five years of animal hoarding. The average number of animals per case was 50, with most animals being dogs. In 75% of cases the animals showed indications of poor welfare, including poor body condition, and the presence of wounds, parasitic and infectious illnesses. Amongst the hoarded animals aggression and social fear were the most commonly reported behaviours. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report on animal hoarding in Spain and one of the first in Europe. Further studies are needed to fully elucidate the epidemiology, cross-cultural differences and aetiology of this under-recognised public health and welfare problem. More research might help to find efficient protocols to assist in the resolution and prevention of this kind of problem.

Education of children about farm animal welfare could affect welfare standards, through influence on current and future purchasing of animal products, and improve general consideration for animals. Establishing success requires evaluation. Here, a farm animal educational event for 13 to 14 year-old schoolchildren, focusing on chicken biology, welfare and food labelling, was assessed. Alterations in knowledge, attitude and a proxy measure of behaviour towards animals and their welfare, key aspects expected to impact on animal welfare, were investigated using questionnaires. These key aspects were predicted to increase following event attendance and remain higher than in the non-attending control group three months later. Knowledge and positive behaviour towards specific poultry species increased significantly in attendees but, although remaining greater than pre-attendance, tended to diminish over time. Value afforded to animal life was unaffected by the event. Consideration of welfare needs was significantly greater overall in attendees than non-attendees, but appeared to be characteristic of children choosing to attend the event, rather than the event per se. Importance attributed to animal welfare followed a hierarchy from survival-relevant, eg freedom from hunger and thirst, to less critical needs, eg stimulation. The specific species under consideration had the most significant effect on attitudes; consistent with predictions based on perceptions of the animals’ ‘complexity’, cognitive ability, similarity to humans and use. Further investigation into the aetiology of attitude and potential barriers to attitude change is required to effect attitude change and determine whether attitude alteration could support maintenance of shifts in knowledge and behaviour.

A cross-sectional study of lactating sows in 71 commercial pig herds in England was carried out to estimate the prevalence of foot lesions and abnormal posture and investigate the associated risks. Observational data were collected on the standing posture, lesions on the hind left foot, and the pen the sow was housed in for 233 sows. The prevalence of foot lesions was 76.8% and 10.8% of lactating sows had abnormal posture. Sows housed on slatted floors during pregnancy had an associated increased risk of heel flaps but a reduced risk of toe erosion, compared with sows housed on solid concrete floors with bedding during pregnancy. There was an increased risk of abnormal posture in lactating sows housed on slatted floors during pregnancy compared with those housed on solid concrete floors with straw bedding during pregnancy. In addition, there was an increased risk of abnormal posture in lactating sows with wounds on the limbs and erosions on the toe and the heel/sole. The positive association between abnormal posture and foot lesions suggests that these lesions might be painful. Housing sows on solid floors during pregnancy might reduce the risk of abnormal posture, and certain foot lesions, in sows during lactation. However, posture is a less sensitive measure of lameness than gait, and the nature of the causal relationship between foot lesions and lameness requires further investigation.

In rodents, cage cleaning increases cardiovascular and behavioural activity for several hours, which are commonly interpreted as stress responses. In mice, post-cleaning activity also includes aggression, which can cause serious injuries. This study was part of a long-term investigation into the effects of cage cleaning frequency on rat behaviour and welfare. Here we aimed to ascertain whether post-cleaning activity is stress- or aggression-related, thereby leading to recurrent acute reductions in welfare, or simply a result of non-aversive stimulation. Male Wistar (n = 160) and Sprague–Dawley (n = 160) rats, kept in four animal units, had their cages cleaned twice per week, once per week or once per fortnight, and were kept on one of two types of bedding. Behaviours were recorded in detail before and after cage cleaning for 20 weeks, as was the aversion-related Harderian gland secretion, chromodacryorrhoea (‘red tears‘). Cage cleaning caused decreased resting and increased feeding, walking, bedding manipulation and sheltering for at least 30 min after the disturbance. Skirmishing also increased markedly for 15 min after cleaning, but decreased thereafter to below baseline levels. Unlike in mice, all skirmishing was non-injurious and play-like. The frequency of cage cleaning did not affect the magnitude of this skirmishing peak, but rats that had their cages cleaned more frequently settled more quickly after cleaning. Surprisingly, chromodacryorrhoea decreased after cage cleaning; this could mean that rats find soiled cages stressful or alternatively, like many disturbances, cage cleaning might provoke frequent, curtailed bouts of grooming, thereby removing the secretion. Rats also manipulated aspen bedding more than paper bedding. Overall, we found no evidence that cage cleaning caused rats any acute decrease in welfare — a finding consistent with additional data we have obtained on the lack of preference by rats for soiled over clean cages, and a lack of long-term, behavioural and physiological responses to being cleaned frequently or infrequently.

The stress on dogs and their handlers during animal-assisted therapy in a prison programme was evaluated using questionnaires and measurement of the dogs’ saliva cortisol concentrations before and after the sessions. Their handlers were volunteers who underwent training classes with their pet dogs. Overall, the dogs did not show serious signs of stress in the programme, which was also the impression of their handlers. In most cases, the dogs’ saliva cortisol values decreased following their participation in the sessions. There was an association between the dogs’ stress levels and the handlers’ self-reported stress. In 11% of cases, the dogs were evaluated as stressed during the session, but their saliva cortisol values did not change significantly from before to after the session. Some handlers might have misconstrued their dogs’ behavioural states. Improvement of the dogs’ welfare may be achievable through giving feedback to the handlers to more accurately evaluate their dogs’ behaviours, by strengthening the selection of appropriate units and classes prior the programme, by developing a programme and handling methods less burdensome to the animals, and by enhancing the aftercare of animals when they are stressed in a session. Achievement of these goals would also strengthen the bonds between dogs and handlers, contributing to a more effective programme for clients.

This paper briefly reviews the development of monitoring procedures used for the assessment of husbandry and welfare within Farm Quality Assurance (QA) schemes. Most current protocols are based on measures of the resources, records and management provisions necessary to promote good husbandry. However, it is now generally accepted that monitoring protocols should be largely or wholly made up of direct, animal-based measurements of animal welfare. Whether based on provisions or outcomes, many current schemes lack impact, partly because they do not necessarily lead to effective action on-farm and partly through lack of public awareness or trust in the claimed benefits of the scheme. This paper proposes the concept of the ‘Virtuous Bicycle’ as a delivery vehicle for improvements in farm animal welfare through simultaneous operation of two virtuous cycles, one on-farm, involving assessment, action and review, the other at the retailer level, involving assurance and promotion, based on proof of compliance.

Previous studies have shown that the analysis of high frequency stress calls in pigs can serve as a reliable tool in welfare research. Our study focuses on the classification of three different classes of piglet vocalisation: grunting, squealing and screaming. In a castration experiment (Experiment 1), 3,285 vocalisations from 42 piglets were analysed for 21 different vocal characteristics. A first discriminant function for the three vocal types was derived from recordings made under laboratory-like conditions. A second discriminant function was derived from non-calibrated measurements of the relative sound energy content. These two classifications revealed 86.7% identical assignments of vocalisations to the three vocal types. The second classification allowed for vocalisation analyses of animals under on-farm recording conditions. This technique was validated during an open-field test (Experiment 2) with piglets housed in two different farrowing systems (11,089 vocalisations, 22 piglets). The proportion of screaming sounds was lower for piglets from a group-farrowing (GF) system than for those from a single-farrowing (SF) system. Sound properties showed differences between as well as within the two experiments for all three vocal types. Vocalisations from SF and GF piglets differed significantly in the duration, energy, and relative maximum levels. We conclude that vocal-type analysis can not only help to identify vocalisation indicative of pain during castration, but also vocal behaviour changes indicating separation stress during the open-field test. Therefore, classification of vocal types can add valuable information to studies that use pig vocalisation for the assessment of welfare.

A computer-based model was constructed to assess enrichment materials (EMats) for intensively-farmed weaned, growing and fattening pigs on a scale from 0 to 10. This model, called RICHPIG, was constructed in order to support the further implementation of EC Directive 2001/93/EC, which states that “pigs must have permanent access to a sufficient quantity of material to enable proper investigation and manipulation activities”. This paper describes the underlying conceptual framework for assessing EMats and explains the concepts, procedures and calculation rules used for semantic modelling. A (parsimonious) weighted average calculation rule was used to calculate enrichment scores from assessment criteria scores (which specify welfare relevant material properties of EMats) and weighting factors (WFs, which specify the relative importance of the assessment criteria). In total, 30 assessment criteria were identified and classified as object design criteria (eg novelty and accessibility), behavioural elements (eg nose, root, chew), biological functions (explore and forage), manipulations (ie object-directed behaviours), other (non-manipulative) consequences (eg aggression and stress) and object performance criteria (eg changeability/destructibility and hygiene). WFs were calculated from a systematic analysis of 573 scientific statements collected in the database, using 11 so-called weighting categories (Wcat, ie scientific paradigms to assess welfare such as the study of natural behaviour, consumer demand studies and stress-physiology) to assign Wcat level scores (which indicate the intensity, duration and incidence of a welfare impact) to the assessment criteria. The main advantages of the RICHPIG model are that it is based explicitly on available scientific information, that it has an explicitly formulated conceptual framework, is transparent, disputable, upgradeable, robust and reasonably in accordance with expert opinion. Major scope for improvements exist in the form of the need for further upgrading with new knowledge, empirical validation and (further) implementation in political decision-making processes.

Unless the benefits to society of measures to protect and improve the welfare of animals are made transparent by means of their valuation they are likely to go unrecognised and cannot easily be weighed against the costs of such measures as required, for example, by policy-makers. A simple single measure scoring system, based on the Welfare Quality® index, is used, together with a choice experiment economic valuation method, to estimate the value that people place on improvements to the welfare of different farm animal species measured on a continuous (0-100) scale. Results from using the method on a survey sample of some 300 people show that it is able to elicit apparently credible values. The survey found that 96% of respondents thought that we have a moral obligation to safeguard the welfare of animals and that over 72% were concerned about the way farm animals are treated. Estimated mean annual willingness to pay for meat from animals with improved welfare of just one point on the scale was £5.24 for beef cattle, £4.57 for pigs and £5.10 for meat chickens. Further development of the method is required to capture the total economic value of animal welfare benefits. Despite this, the method is considered a practical means for obtaining economic values that can be used in the cost-benefit appraisal of policy measures intended to improve the welfare of animals.

Traditionally, game-keepers and agriculturalists have controlled predators using lethal methods, but there are circumstances under which these may be ineffective or inappropriate for animal welfare or conservation reasons. Generalised aversion is potentially a form of non-lethal control, in which predators are conditioned to avoid foul-tasting bait, causing them subsequently to generalise this avoidance to similar, but untreated, prey, thereby affording it protection. In this exploratory study, a group of captive red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) was successfully conditioned to avoid untreated milk after drinking milk containing BitrexTM, a bitter substance that they were unable to detect except by taste. Our foxes were members of a family group and so housed together to reduce stress, and therefore the individuals’ responses to the various treatments may not have been independent. As a result, we combined data from the three animals, and our most conservative analyses consider the sampling population to be this fox group; we do not make inferences about foxes in general, but confine them to this fox-group. This trial was a pilot to reveal the potential for future work on wild animals. Successful application of generalised aversion to non-lethal predator control has far-reaching implications for the sport hunting industry, nature reserve management and the conservation of threatened predators requiring control, as well as clear animal welfare benefits.

This study aimed to estimate the value of the typical Australian herding dog in terms of predicted return on investment. This required an assessment of the costs associated with owning herding dogs and estimation of the work they typically perform. Data on a total of 4,027 dogs were acquired through The Farm Dog Survey which gathered information from 812 herding dog owners around Australia. The median cost involved in owning a herding dog was estimated to be a total of AU$7,763 over the period of its working life. The work performed by the dog throughout this time was estimated to have a median value of AU$40,000. So, herding dogs typically provided their owners with a 5.2-fold return on investment. When respondents were asked to nominate the maximal, one-off, veterinary expenditure they would consider to remedy an illness or injury for an especially valued dog, the median response was AU$1,001-2,000 which is not concordant with the dogs’ calculated median lifetime value. The current findings equip working dog owners with useful information to make financially appropriate expenditure decisions related to their working dogs. This is expected to increase farm profitability and improve welfare for farm dogs.

The behavioural time budget of 140 turkey poults housed on litter in groups of 10-11 in small pens was recorded by individual scan sampling from 1-day-old to 12-weeks-old. Over this time period some behaviour (sitting/sleeping) remained relatively constant, some (feeding) declined and remained low, some (standing/walking, drinking) declined and rose again, while some (environmental pecking, bird pecking, preening) rose and then declined. By 12 weeks the incidence of some behaviours appeared to have stabilized, though others were still changing. A substantial proportion of their activity could be categorized as beak-related behaviour. Feather pecking and cannibalism are major behavioural and welfare problems in intensively-housed turkeys; it is postulated that one reason for this may be because a major proportion of their beak-related behaviour is strongly directed towards plumage, either their own or that of other birds, rather than towards food or environmental stimuli. One possible solution may be to seek ways of increasing the proportion of time they spend feeding.

Lameness is considered a major problem in dairy production. Lameness is commonly detected with locomotion scores assigned to cows under farm conditions, but raters are often trained and assessed for reliability and agreement by using video recordings. The aim of this study was to evaluate intra- and inter-rater reliability and agreement of experienced and inexperienced raters for locomotion scoring performed live and from video, and to calculate the influence of raters and the method of observation (live or video) on the probability of classifying a cow as lame. Using a five-level locomotion score, cows were scored twice live and twice from video by three experienced and two inexperienced raters for three weeks. Every week different cows were scored. Intra- and inter-rater reliability (expressed as weighted kappa, kw) and agreement (expressed as percentage of agreement, PA) for live/live, live/video and video/video comparisons were determined. A logistic regression was performed to estimate the influence of the rater and method of observation on the probability of classifying a cow as lame in live and video observation. Experienced raters had higher values for intra-rater reliability and agreement for video/video than for live/live and live/video comparison. Inexperienced raters, however, did not differ for intra- and inter-rater reliability and agreement for live/live, live/video and video/video comparisons. The logistic regression indicated that raters were responsible for the main effect and the method of observation (live or from video) had a minor effect on the probability for classifying a cow as lame (locomotion score ≥ 3). In conclusion, under the present experimental conditions, experienced raters performed better than unexperienced raters when locomotion scoring was done from video. Since video observation did not show any important influence in the probability of classifying a cow as lame, video observation seems to be an acceptable method for locomotion scoring and lameness assessment in dairy cows.