The handling of cattle during unloading (n = 39) and movement to slaughter (n = 163) was observed at a commercial slaughterhouse. Most potentially traumatic events and handling events occurred while the cattle were in the race. During the initial 3 hours in the lairage pen, cattle from markets (n = 28) spent significantly more time drinking than those sent to slaughter direct from farms (n = 11; P < 0.05). Most cattle had bruises (99%; η = 181), but there was no difference between the occurrence of bruising in cattle direct from farms and those from markets. Bruise score was not affected by the distance transported from farms 18-201km (11-125 miles). However, cattle from markets > 64km (>40 miles) from the slaughterhouse had greater bruise scores than those from nearer markets 0.8-64km (0.5-40 miles) (P <0.01). No correlations were found between potentially traumatic events at the slaughterhouse and the occurrence of bruising. Plasma total protein concentration and plasma creatine kinase activity in blood collected at exsanguination (n = 170) was significantly greater in cattle from markets than in those from farms (P < 0.05), but there was no difference in plasma osmolality and packed cell volume (PCV). Cattle from distant markets > 129km (>80 miles) had higher PCV and plasma total protein concentration than those from markets within 129km (80 miles) (P <0.05). The overall results suggest that cattle from markets, particularly those transported for a distance greater than 64km (40 miles), would benefit from greater access to water at the market and from improved methods of handling and transport prior to arrival at the slaughterhouse.

The aim of this study was to investigate whether there were differences in fearfulness between laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus) housed in aviaries and in cages. The tonic immobility (TI) test was used to assess the fearfulness. Norwegian light hybrid White Leghorn hens were housed in battery cages and in three types of aviaries: the Marielund, the Laco-Volétage and the Tiered Wire Floor. Each system housed about 1,500 birds. Tests were performed on 50 birds per housing system at 70 weeks of age in one laying flock and at 30 and 70 weeks of age in the next.

At 30 weeks of age in the second laying flock, the duration of the tonic immobility response was unaffected by type of system. At 70 weeks, however, hens in cages showed tonic immobility of longer duration than hens in aviaries, in the first as well as in the second laying flock No differences in TI between hens from the three types of aviaries were found. The duration of TI did not correlate with plumage condition or body-weight, except for a longer duration of TI with poorer plumage condition in aviaries at 30 weeks. These results indicate that the fearfulness of hens in cages, as measured by the TI test, increased considerably with time. The lower fearfulness shown by hens in aviaries suggests that this important aspect of welfare is more secured in aviaries than in cages.

This paper will try to answer the question of whether animals can suffer.

My aim is, firstly, to discuss whether or not an irreflexive animal consciousness could experience suffering. I do this because there are authors who assume such a consciousness in animals. The second part of this contribution concerns the question of the cognitive and neural prerequisites which have to be present in order to give consciousness, or the suffering experience, a positive fitness value. Further, I analyse for which animals these brain structures and cognitive capacities have been described, since consciousness and suffering can only be expected in these animals.

In order to answer the questions, several assumptions had to be made. If the assumptions are correct than the results of the various analyses demonstrate that: i) an irreflexive consciousness is unable to experience suffering; and ii) animal suffering may, for the time being, only be expected in the anthropoid apes. However, there is an important difference between the registration of pain as a stimulus, which does not induce feelings of suffering, and the experience of pain as an emotion, which does induce suffering. According to the arguments presented in this contribution, the experience of pain as a stimulus could be expected in far more species than anthropoid apes alone.

The aim of this study was, firstly, to investigate the connection between on-farm assessed welfare scores and production parameters for sows, and secondly, to examine how farmers perceive the connection between their disposition, animal welfare and productivity. We assessed environmental and management preconditions on animal welfare and interviewed farmers on 30 Finnish farms. We studied the relationship between welfare and production using correlation and regression analyses. The theory of planned behaviour served as an articulation of farmer disposition when studying farmer perceptions. Concerning the production data, better welfare scores from the ‘health and stockmanship’ category during lactation were correlated with shorter reproduction cycle and fewer stillborn piglets and it also explained some of the variation in the number of piglets per year and the length of the farrowing interval. The farmers agreed that the productivity parameters and the principles of assessing welfare used in this study were relevant. A majority of farmers considered that animal welfare affects productivity and that there are associations between farmer attitudes, animal welfare and productivity. There were no statistical relationships between farmer perceptions and animal welfare; yet on the farms of farmers with positive perceptions of attitudes to animal welfare and productivity there were slightly lower piglet mortality rates and lower stillbirth rates than on the farms with farmers holding less positive views. We conclude that actions to improve animal welfare also have an economic impact as they enhance sow production. Good stockmanship and healthier animals result in more piglets born and a shorter reproduction cycle.

Isoeugenol (17 mg AQUI-S™ L−1), nitrogen, and three levels of carbon dioxide (low: 70-80, medium: 180-250 and high: > 400 mg CO2 L−1) were tested as stunning agents for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fasted for six days. All methods were tested under optimised conditions (starting with rested fish, and stunning and recovery under good water quality conditions). The fish were assessed in relation to behaviour and stress in terms of blood chemistry and muscle biochemistry. Only isoeugenol fulfilled all of our set criteria related to fish welfare and stress as it: (i) minimised aversive reactions upon exposure and ability to render the fish unconscious; (ii) showed no recovery during a period of 10 min post stunning; and (iii) achieved minimal muscle activity (good muscle quality). The fish treated with nitrogen showed the strongest aversive reactions, produced the most stressed fish, and fish that did not appear to be sedated. Nitrogen stunning cannot therefore be recommended. None of the levels of carbon dioxide fulfilled all criteria. When exposed to high and medium levels, fish exhibited aversive reactions and became considerably stressed. At the low level, changes in behaviour and stress were modest, but in such cases the fish were not sufficiently immobilised to facilitate easy handling in a possible pre-stunning context. No level of carbon dioxide rendered the fish unconscious. Even under optimised stunning conditions, the use of carbon dioxide cannot be recommended in connection with slaughter of Atlantic salmon.

There is an ethical and scientific need to minimise the harm experienced by animals used in scientific procedures and to maximise their well-being. Welfare can be improved by the refinement of practice, particularly if these refinements are applied to every aspect of the life of an animal used in the laboratory, from birth to death. Primates are considered likely to have a greater capacity for suffering than other sentient species and therefore refinement of their use is particularly important. The refinement of the human impact on laboratory-housed primates and of housing and husbandry practices are dealt with in parts I and II of this three-part review. In part III, methods of refinement that can be applied specifically to the use of primates in procedures, are summarised and discussed, together with a description of some current practices, and the scientific evidence that suggests that they should no longer be used. Methods of refinement of identification, capture and restraint, sampling, administration of substances, humane endpoints, and euthanasia are included. If these methods are used, taking into account species-specific differences and needs, it is concluded that harm can be minimised and primate welfare improved.

Twenty-four primiparous pregnant pigs were randomly assigned to three handling treatments: Minimal, Positive and Negative. The pigs were moved individually to indoor concrete-floored partial stalls with neck-tethers, 2 days before handling commenced. Positive (stroking and patting on approach to an experimenter) and Negative (brief electric shock of < Is when failing to withdraw from the outstretched hand of an experimenter) handling was imposed for 3min day-1 and the amount of physical contact between handler and pig was recorded. The Minimal treatment group was subjected to routine husbandry practices only. After 3 weeks of the handling treatments and tether-housing, all pigs were catheterized under full surgical anaesthesia. The pigs were allowed 4 days of recovery before collecting the following data: daytime plasma Cortisol concentration profiles, behavioural responses to a human in an arena test, Cortisol responses to human proximity, Cortisol responses to an A CTH-challenge and immunological responses to an injected mitogen.

In the Positive treatment, the amount of physical contact between pig and handler increased during the course of the experiment, while the amount of physical contact did not change in the Negative treatment. There were no effects of treatment on behavioural responses in the arena test. The average daytime concentration of free plasma Cortisol was lower in the Positive treatment than in the Negative or Minimal treatments. The Positive treatment also showed lower total and free plasma Cortisol concentrations pre- and posthuman proximity when compared with the Negative treatment. No differences were found between treatments in total and free plasma Cortisol concentrations following an ACTH challenge. The immunological response was greater in the Positive treatment compared with the Negative treatment and tended to be greater when compared with the Minimal treatment.

It was concluded that the nature of the human-animal relationship affected the physiological stress responses of pregnant pigs to tether-housing. Indications are that a positive human-animal relationship would obviate some of the negative effects of being kept in tether-stalls by lowering the basal cortisol concentration and by increasing immunological responsiveness.

Quality of life (QoL) is an abstract construct that has been formally recognised and widely used in human medicine. In recent years, QoL has received increasing attention in animal and veterinary sciences, and the measurement of QoL has been a focus of research in both the human and animal fields. Lord Kelvin said “When you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers — you have scarcely in your thoughts, advanced to a stage of science, whatever the matter may be” (Lord Kelvin 1893). So are we able to measure animal QoL? The psychometric measurement principles for abstract constructs such as human intelligence have been well rehearsed and researched. Application of traditional and newer psychometric approaches is becoming more widespread as a result of increasing human and animal welfare expectations which have brought a greater emphasis on the individual. In recent decades the field of human medicine has developed valid measures of experienced pain and QoL of individuals, including those who are not capable of self-report. More recently, researchers who are interested in the measurement of animal pain and QoL have begun to use similar methodologies. In this paper, we will consider these methodologies and the opportunities and difficulties they present.

Lame broiler chickens perform poorly in standardised mobility tests and have nociceptive thresholds that differ from those of nonlame birds, even when confounding factors such as differences in bodyweight are accounted for. This study investigated whether these altered responses could be due to pain, by comparing performance in a Group Obstacle test and a Latency to Lie (LTL) test of lame (Gait Score [GS] 2.5-4) and non-lame (GS 0-1) broilers administered analgesia or a saline control. We used exploratory subcutaneous doses of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), meloxicam (5 mg kg−1) or carprofen (35 mg kg−1) or the opioid butorphanol tartrate (4 mg kg−1). We included butorphanol to explore the possibility that NSAIDs could improve mobility by reducing inflammation without necessarily invoking an analgesic effect. Lameness was a significant predictor in all analyses. Neither the number of obstacle crossings nor latency to cross an obstacle was significantly changed by either NSAID, but LTL was longer in lame birds given carprofen and meloxicam than in lame birds given saline. LTL was associated with foot-pad dermatitis and ameliorated by both NSAIDs. Butorphanol did not affect LTL but appeared soporific in the obstacle test, increasing latency to cross and, in non-lame birds, reducing the number of crossings. Combined with data from other studies, the results suggest carprofen and meloxicam had some analgesic effect on lame birds, lending further support to concerns that lameness compromises broiler welfare. Further investigation of opioid treatments and lameness types is needed to disentangle effects on mobility and on pain.

A current programme of wildlife utilisation in the Andean region involves the capture of wild vicunas, their shearing, transport and, in some cases, captive farming. The effects of these interventions on the physiology, and thus welfare, of wild vicunas are unknown. As a first step to quantifying and thus mitigating any adverse welfare consequences of this harvest, we measured the immediate and longer-term physical and physiological effects of capture, shearing and transport. A sample of juvenile male vicunas was captured. Six were shorn at the capture site, six after two weeks in captivity, and the remaining seven animals were kept as controls for 39 days. In general, vicunas showed changes in blood glucose, packed cell volume, cortisol, and neutrophil:lymphocyte ratios within 4-6 h following capture. Creatine kinase was also affected by capture and transport, showing a peak plasma level 24 h after capture, which was followed by a peak plasma level of aspartate aminotransferase four days after capture and transport. After 12 days in captivity, all of the vicunas showed physiological parameters close to expected baseline values for the species. We could detect no differences in physiological parameters between animals that were captured, sheared and transported and those that were only captured and transported. Similarly, we could detect no differences in most responses of vicunas between those sheared after 12 days in captivity and a control group held under similar conditions but from which blood was sampled without shearing. A further comparison between animals sheared immediately after capture and animals sheared after 12 days in captivity revealed that creatine kinase levels were higher in the former group. During transport prior to release back into the wild, only minor injuries (lip bleeding and limb contusions) and a significant increase in rectal temperature were observed. Our results provide a basis for recommendations to improve the welfare of vicunas during the wool harvest, and provide baseline and stress-response data to serve as reference points for further studies of vicuna welfare.

Lameness in breeding swine can cause severe pain leading to on-farm welfare issues and significant economic impacts. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs including meloxicam and flunixin meglumine are commonly used in veterinary medicine for their analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. Pressure algometry and thermal sensitivity tests are non-invasive methods to quantify pain sensitivity using nociceptive thresholds to provoke withdrawal responses on lame and sound legs. The objective of this work was to determine the effects of these drugs on nociceptive thresholds in sows induced lame using pressure algometry and thermal sensitivity tests. Lameness was induced in 24 mature, mixed-parity sows using a chemical synovitis model and three treatments were compared: meloxicam (1.0 mg kg−1 PO), flunixin meglumine (2.2 mg kg−1 IM) and sterile saline (IM). Pressure algometry was measured on sound and lame rear legs with three replicates at three landmarks. Thermal sensitivity tests were done on sound and lame rear legs with three replicates using a thermal stimulus at one landmark. From 37 to 72 h after lameness induction, meloxicam- and flunixin meglumine-treated sows tolerated higher pressure algometer nociceptive thresholds compared to saline-treated sows. Changes in thermal nociceptive thresholds were evident at the Tmax time-points for meloxicam administration and 72 and 168 h post lameness induction for flunixin meglumine-treated sows. In conclusion, flunixin meglumine and meloxicam administration mitigated pain sensitivity in lame sows post lameness induction when pain sensitivity was evaluated with pressure algometry. These analgesic drugs may be a key tool to manage pain associated with lameness.

The stunning and killing efficiency of ice, superchilling (N2 gas), freezing (-37°C), gradual heating (40°C), boiling, piercing of ganglia, salt baths (NaCl and KCl), gas (CO2) and electricity (50 Hz AC) on edible crabs was studied. Results showed that electricity was the most efficient stunning method, whereby edible crabs could be rendered insensible within 1 s using electric field strengths of 400 V m−1 and above. Prolonging the electrical current to 10 s resulted in less potential difference (220 V m−1) required to stun the crabs. Applying a two-stage stun with 530 Vm−1 for 1 s followed by 170 V m−1 for 2 min resulted in a state of prolonged unconsciousness and 60% mortality. Failure to stun the crabs with electricity resulted in massive autotomy, where all appendages were lost. Behavioural responses were lost in approximately 30% of crabs after 100 min of chilling on ice, while freezing did not render the crabs unconscious until temperatures of subzero were reached. The exposed chelipeds stiffened, and once frozen, irreversible damage was caused. Placing crabs into heated seawater (40°C) led all responses to be lost after 5 min, while the internal temperature exceeded an average of 26°C, representing approximately 2.5 min of boiling. Gas, in the form of CO2, NaCl, and a low concentration of KCl (5%), failed to render the animals insensible within 12 min. Using 20% KCl saw all animals lose all behavioural responses within 3 min. The piercing of single ganglions failed to kill the animal; both ganglia must be pierced in order to kill the animal. We conclude that electrical stunning is recommended prior to boiling or carving, while piercing can alternatively be carried out by trained personnel.

Regarding broilers, Brazil is the third largest producer and the leading chicken meat exporter in the world. Independent certifications are required by some importers in the European Union (EU) to guarantee compliance with minimum welfare requirements. Our objective was to compare broiler chicken welfare in GLOBALGAP® certified (C) and non-certified (N) intensive farms in the State of Paraná, Brazil, using the Welfare Quality® protocol. Ten farms in each group were evaluated and data were transformed using scores that ranged from 0 to 100, where 100 is the best condition. Results suggested that farms adhered to minimum welfare standards, regardless of certification and that the adoption of standards based on overseas rules may have limitations for the improvement of animal welfare. In order to further improve broiler welfare in Brazil, more rigorous standards should be developed.

The popular press frequently reports that coat colour bias negatively impacts shelter adoption rates for black domestic dogs. This phenomenon, commonly called ‘black dog syndrome’ (BDS), reportedly increases the likelihood of euthanasia for black dogs and negatively affects the length of black dogs’ time to adoption. While organisations may focus on BDS and ways to promote black dogs, it is possible that the influences of other important factors, such as sex, age and breed, may be overlooked. To evaluate the veracity of BDS and examine the impact of various phenotypic traits on shelter outcomes, we analysed four years of intake and outcome data from two animal shelters in the Pacific Northwestern United States. Results indicated that the average length of availability for adoption (LOA) for black dogs was not significantly longer than that for other coloured dogs, nor was the rate of euthanasia of black dogs significantly higher than average. On the other hand, age and breed group were consistent predictors of shelter outcomes across the two shelters. Older dogs tended to have longer LOA and to be euthanised at rates higher than expected. Bully breeds had significantly longer LOA in both shelters and, compared to other breeds, were euthanised at higher than expected rates. The methods implemented in this study could be utilised by other shelters to inform intake and marketing strategies.

Feather-pecking and cannibalism may reduce the potential of organic husbandry to enhance the welfare of laying hens. We report risk factors for these issues based on a large survey of 107 commercial flocks in eight European countries. Information was collected regarding housing, management and flock characteristics (age, genotype). Near the end of lay, 50 hens per flock were assessed for plumage condition and wounds. Potential influencing factors were screened and submitted to a multivariate model. The majority of the flocks (81%) consisted of brown genotypes and were found in six countries. Since white genotypes (19%) were found only in the two Scandinavian countries, a country effect could not be excluded. Therefore, separate models were made for brown and white genotypes. Feather damage in brown hens could be explained by a model containing a lower dietary protein content and no daily access to the free range (30% of the variation explained). For feather damage in white hens, no model could be made. Wounds in brown hens were associated with not having daily access to free range (14% of the variation explained). Wounds in white hens were explained by a model containing not topping-up litter during the laying period (26% of the variation explained). These results suggest that better feeding management, daily access to the free-range area and improved litter management may reduce incidence of plumage damage and associated injurious pecking, hence enhancing the welfare of organic laying hens. Since this was an epidemiological study, further experimental studies are needed to investigate the causal relationships.

Pathological alterations of the tail tip are a severe problem for fattening cattle husbandry with respect to animal welfare and economic losses. We compared the frequencies of tail tip lesions and less severe skin damage in bulls on farms with slatted-floor pens (slat, n = 10), slatted floor pens with prophylactic tail docking (slat/dock, n = 9), and deep bedding pens (straw, n = 10). In addition, the subjects’ weight, their space allotment and the season of the year were determined to test whether they were related to the frequency of tail tip lesions and skin damage. Results are based on 8782 tail inspections in 764 pens. The frequency of the more severe tail tip lesions was highest in slat farms, less high in slat/dock farms, and lowest in straw farms. However, the incidence of the less severe skin damage was highest in slat farms, less high in straw farms, and lowest in slat/dock farms. The frequency of tail tip lesions increased with the weight of bulls in slat and slat/dock farms, but not in straw farms. In addition, in slat and slat/dock farms the incidence of tail tip lesions increased with a decreasing space allotment. The frequency of skin damage increased with increasing weight of bulls in each housing condition. The effect of weight on the number of tail tip lesions and skin damage was stronger in autumn, ie the period following the warm season, compared to spring. Our results suggest that a soft floor and an enlarged space allotment are the most suitable means of preventing tail tip lesions in fattening bulls. Prophylactic tail docking can reduce the occurrence of tail tip lesions only to a lesser degree and may impair the animals’ welfare.

This study demonstrates that only a minimal time investment was needed to train a large troop of laboratory non-human primates to co-operate in the catching procedure. A group of 45 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was trained to enter a chute system voluntarily and be caught one by one. The total duration of the training sessions was under six hours, with less than 15 total work-hours invested by three people. The result was an improved capture procedure which minimized risk to personnel and distress to the animals.

The provision of foraging opportunities may be a simple way of improving an animal's welfare, but this approach has been neglected for laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus). Standard housing contains little enrichment, and food is often provided ad libitum, which may result in inactivity and obesity, especially in mature males. Foraging enrichments may offer a way to correct these deficiencies. This study compared three potential enrichments — a limited-access hopper, gnawing sticks and a foraging device — to standard housing and feeding conditions, in order to examine their effects on rat body weight, food consumption, behaviour and preferences. The subjects were 12 mature male Wistar rats. Effects were assessed from daily weighing and from video records of the rats' behaviour over 24 h periods. The rats' preferences were determined using a four-way test system in which they could choose between a standard cage and cages offering the three potential enrichments. Compared to the standard housing and feeding, the limited-access hopper had a tendency to reduce food consumption, but the time spent feeding increased. The gnawing sticks provided the rats with the opportunity to gnaw, but did not affect other behaviours or body weight. The foraging device had the benefits of reducing aggression and allowing the rats to search for and manipulate food, but resulted in significant gains in body weight. Additionally, the foraging device was the preferred feeding source. Of the four possible feeding locations, the rats spent the least amount of time in the standard cage. The foraging device provided the most benefits but requires further modification to address problems of obesity.

Animal welfare scientists actively seek reliable and practical metrics that can serve as indicators of animal welfare for use with agricultural, laboratory and zoo-housed animals. Behavioural diversity as a welfare concept originated from early welfare scientists linking poor animal welfare with a high proportion of time spent engaged in stereotyped behaviours and little expression of behaviours that would be expected under wild, or natural conditions. Recently, the concept of behavioural diversity as a welfare indicator has been widely adopted and is frequently quantified by the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H-index). However, the H-Index is fraught with theoretical and mathematical limitations when applied to animal welfare. Four key problems with this metric are demonstrated: the metric's responsivity to the size of the behavioural repertoire and the underlying assumption that larger behavioural repertoires reflect better welfare, the sensitivity of the metric to arbitrary decisions about the resolution of behavioural categories, the fact that the calculation of the metric is agnostic to the valence of behaviours, and the metric's susceptibility to the common practice of excluding some behavioural categories. Moving forward, we recommend focusing on validated welfare measures that are sensitive to valence when evaluating animal welfare.

Non-cage systems for housing laying hens often incorporate a framework of perches, allowing birds to move in three dimensions. Wood is predominantly used for perch construction, because it is relatively cheap and easy to work with. However, wooden perches are difficult to clean and disinfect, which could lead to disease and discomfort for the birds using them. The objectives of this study were to identify which characteristics of perch design are preferred by laying hens; and to test whether birds would use perches of alternative materials for a comparable amount of time as they use wooden perches. Six laying hens were housed individually in litter-floored pens and were offered a choice of three pairs of contrasting perch types (experiments 1-3): a rectangular, wooden perch (‘control’) versus two, thin, parallel, rectangular wooden perches; ‘control’ versus a similar perch covered with foam and fabric; and ‘control’ versus a round, wooden perch. Birds were given each pair of perches twice, controlling for perch position in the pen. Time spent on each perch in a 48h period was determined from video records. Preferences were then tested in consecutive trials (experiments 4-5) between perches of the following materials: wood versus plastic versus steel; and wood versus textured aluminium. There were no significant differences in time spent on different perches, suggesting that birds had no preferences between perch types. The implications of these results could be important for the design of alternative systems for laying hens. Birds may be content to perch on artificial materials which could be more hygienic than wood and easier to maintain in a commercial system.