As part of a study into the effects of human activities on the welfare of free-living wildlife, the relative scale and severity of welfare problems in wild mammals and birds in Europe were investigated. Major cases were described and compared in terms of the nature and level of harm (pain, stress and fear) they cause, the duration of these effects and the number of individuals affected. The use of anticoagulant rodenticides, myxomatosis in rabbits, the poisoning of wildfowl by ingested lead shot, the contamination of seabirds with fuel oil, the effects of shooting, injuries due to collisions with road traffic and prédation by domestic cats all severely compromise the welfare of large numbers of animals. Practical approaches to the alleviation and prevention of some of these welfare problems are discussed. We suggest that in assessing the environmental impact of new developments and technologies prior to their implementation, possible consequences to wildlife welfare should always be considered.

A case study is described in which a high incidence of lameness in broiler chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) is associated with rearing to 84 days of age; broilers are normally slaughtered at less than 50 days of age. A sample of 185 birds was scored for walking ability, and 24 birds from this group were assessed for dehydration by measuring plasma osmolality. The proportion of the group having gait abnormalities was compared with that recorded during a recent survey of Danish flocks and was found to be higher. A relationship is established between the degree of gait impairment and the level of dehydration. The degree of dehydration is related to the findings for plasma osmolality from previous research, and the results indicate that some of the birds in this case may have been deprived of access to water for periods in excess of 60 hours.

Automatic broiler catching machines have been developed for several reasons. Manual catching is expensive, often rough and may cause injury to the birds. Apart from animal welfare considerations, the demand for good quality meat means that rejection rates must be kept at a low level. The poor working conditions for manual catching teams are also an important factor. Only a few scientific studies on the effects of catching machines on bird health and welfare have been published. In this study, the carcase rejection rates in relation to manual and mechanical catching were compared at a poultry abattoir following a change of loading and unloading systems. The effect on the level of birds found ‘dead on arrival’ at the slaughterhouse initially varied considerably, regardless of catching method. During the last 3-month period of the study however, mechanically caught flocks showed significantly higher frequencies of dead birds on arrival than manually caught flocks. During the same last period, when running-in problems should be regarded as solved, the prevalence of bruises was also still significantly higher in the mechanically caught flocks, whereas the prevalence of fractures did not differ significantly between the two groups. This suggests that there are still opportunities for further improvements of the machine, although in Sweden it has now been accepted for commercial use in accordance with Swedish animal welfare legislation, under the supervision of the National Board of Agriculture.

The damage caused by ear tags used for sheep identification was investigated in a two-part study. In Part I, ear tags classified as metal loop, golf-tee, single flex or lambtag were inserted into the ears of 62 ewes. The severity of ewe ear lesions was monitored until 20 weeks after ear tag insertion. In Part II, 351 lambs had tags classified as metal loop, plastic loop, golf-tee, double flex, single flap, lambtag and electronic, inserted in their ears. The behaviour of the lambs was observed for 30s after insertion of the ear tag. The severity of lamb ear lesions was monitored until 5 weeks after ear tag insertion. In both ewes and lambs there was a significantly greater risk of severe and persistent ear lesions following the use of metal loop tags as compared with the other types of ear tag (P < 0.001). The single flap tag was difficult to insert in a greater proportion of lambs (P < 0.001), and more lambs haemorrhaged (P < 0.001), vocalized (P = 0.002) and shook their heads (P = 0.004) with it, than with the other types of ear tags. All ear tags resulted in an inflammatory reaction and required correct positioning to minimize the severity of ear lesions.

In order to safeguard the welfare of laboratory-housed non-human primates, refinement techniques should be applied to every aspect of the life of animals used in the laboratory, from birth to death, with the aim of both minimising harm and maximising well-being. In this second part of a three-part review we summarise published information on housing and husbandry practices, and describe ways to minimise contingent inhumanity associated with the use of primates in laboratories and their breeding and supply (where inhumanity is defined as the infliction of distress). We also discuss methods by which the welfare of these animals can be maximised on a day-to-day basis. The principles of enrichment, aspects of the housing environment, social and physical enrichment and acquisition are discussed. Refinement of the influence of humans and experimental procedures are discussed in Parts I and III of this review, respectively.

This study was carried out to compare the health of growing pigs in five different production systems in France and Spain using measures provided by the Welfare Quality® protocol. A total of 11,647 pigs housed on 91 commercial farms were evaluated over a two-year period (2007-2009). Farms considered as conventional were close to the European dominant production system, rearing ‘white’ pigs (eg Large White; Landrace * Pietrain) housed on concrete floors. Systems considered as differentiated had specifications to distinguish them from the conventional one. Farms that housed ‘white’ breeds of pigs on straw were then considered as a different production system. Mallorcan Black pigs managed extensively on family farms in the Balearic islands represented a third production system. The remaining two systems assessed were represented by the methods used for Iberian pig rearing extensively or intensively. Multiple Generalised Linear Mixed Models were performed for each animal-based measure of health. The straw-bedded and the conventional systems did not differ in the prevalence of any animal-based measures. Mallorcan Black pigs and Iberian pigs kept extensively had a lower prevalence of severe wounds than pigs in the conventional system and the lowest prevalence of tail biting. Focusing on pigs housed in the conventional system, several possible causal factors (such as the feeding system and the type of floor) were identified relating to severe wounds, tail biting and lameness. Therefore, the recording of simple environmental-based factors can be useful in detecting farms that are more likely to show these problems.

This study compared the effectiveness of kraft wrapping paper and rubber toys as enrichment for 22 chimpanzees group-housed in conventional indoor/outdoor runs. Objects were tested separately during 67 hours of data collection using a group scan sampling technique. Paper was used a mean 27 per cent of the available time, while the Kong Toys™ were used a mean 10 per cent of the available time. The degree of object manipulation and object contact was higher with the paper, but the level of social play and solitary play with the object was not differentially affected by the two objects. The objects had differing effects on the subjects’ levels of grooming, but affiliation, agonism, inactivity and sexual behaviour did not vary according to the object being used. A gender-by-age interaction was found, with immature males exhibiting the highest levels of solitary play with objects. Object use steadily declined over the first hour of exposure, showing evidence of habituation. Object use when the Kong Toy™ was present declined over the course of the study, but use of the paper remained consistent. Texture, destructibility, portability, complexity and adaptability may be important in determining the object's value as effective enrichment. The destructible wrapping paper was a more worthwhile enrichment object than the indestructible Kong Toy™ for the captive chimpanzees in this study.

Disease is one of the most important causes of animal suffering. When diseases are treated the aim is to achieve rapid and permanent recovery and this helps to reduce the duration of suffering. It does not, however, alleviate suffering during the fulminant and recovery phases. Greater attention needs to be given to alleviating suffering and the signs of sickness during disease states. In this paper, the role of the cytokines in mediating sickness behaviour and suffering during disease is reviewed. The importance of sickness behaviour in improving the chances of recovery are considered, along with the potential use of anti-cytokine strategies in alleviating suffering in disease states.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the intra-observer repeatability of some animal-related variables which could be used in welfare-assessment protocols at farm level. Recordings were performed on seven dairy farms (four for cattle and three for buffaloes). The animals were observed on three occasions at three-week intervals. The variables collected for each animal were behaviour during milking (stepping and kicking), avoidance distance, lameness, and cleanliness. For each farm and each variable, intra-observer repeatability was computed using the Kendall coefficient of concordance (W). A ratio between the variance of the animal and the sum of the latter with the error variance was also calculated using a model of analysis of variance with one factor (animal), to give a further measure of repeatability. These two methods yielded similar results. In particular, in dairy cattle, a high repeatability for avoidance distance, stepping, lameness and cleanliness was observed, whereas for buffaloes avoidance distance and stepping were the repeatable variables.

This paper presents an account of a Welfare Quality® assessment of 92 dairy farms carried out by seven experienced assessors. The aim was to evaluate the potential of the Welfare Quality® assessment protocol with respect to its uptake by UK farm assurance schemes. Data collection, and measure aggregation were performed according to the Welfare Quality® protocol for dairy cows. This study examined the data itself, by the testing of how hypothetical interventions might be reflected in changes in the aggregated scores, and also investigated human-related aspects, through inter-assessor standardisation sessions to evaluate reliability, and an assessor focus group to collect feedback. Overall, three main ‘challenges’ were identified. The first challenge related to the large amount of missing data. Unexpectedly, this was such that it was only possible to calculate an overall classification for 7% of farms. The second challenge concerned the way in which aggregated scores did not always reflect hypothetical interventions. The final challenge was inter-assessor reliability, where not all assessors were found to achieve acceptable levels of agreement on a number of outcome measures by the third training session. Suggestions for managing these challenges included, follow-up to assessor training, the use of multiple imputation methods to fill in missing data, and, where applicable, not aggregating the scores. The conclusion of the study was that the protocol provided useful information from which to make an informed selection of measures, but that the challenges, combined with the lengthy assessment time, were too great for its use as a certification tool.

An alternative emergency method for killing poultry on-farm is required following European legislation changes (EU 1099/2009), which heavily restricts the use of manual cervical dislocation. This study investigated the kill efficacy of two mechanical methods that conform to the new legislation: (i) a novel mechanical cervical dislocation device; and (ii) a modified captive-bolt device (Rabbit Zinger™) and manual cervical dislocation (the control). Killing treatments were applied to broilers and layers at two stages of production (broilers: 2-3 and 5 weeks of age; layers: 12-13 and 58-62 weeks), with a total of 180 birds. Latency to abolition of cranial and behavioural reflexes, as well as post mortem analysis of the physiological damage produced, were used to estimate time to unconsciousness and assess kill efficacy. The novel mechanical cervical dislocation device was reliable and a practical method for killing poutry on-farm (100% kill success), with the majority of cranial reflexes showing no significant differences between interval mean durations across killing methods (eg nictitating membrane [mean = 0.7-3.3 s], and rhythmic breathing [mean = 0.0-0.3 s]), however for jaw tone and pupillary reflex, the modified Rabbit ZingerTM had significantly shorter interval mean durations compared to the control and mechanical cervical dislocation device (mean differences: jaw tone = ~8 s; pupillary = ~38 s). The novel mechanical cervical dislocation device resulted in consistent anatomical damage to the birds (eg high dislocation of the neck and severing of the spinal cord) compared to the manual method, despite both having 100% success rate, while the modified Rabbit ZingerTM was difficult to operate and resulted in varied anatomical damage. The novel mechanical cervical dislocation device showed promise as a replacement kill method on-farm for poultry.

This study compared the effects of concrete slats (CS), synthetic rubber slats on aluminium profiles (RS) and slotted rubber mats on concrete slats (RM) in fully slatted floor pens on behaviour, claw and leg disorders, claw horn growth, cleanliness and production parameters of growing dairy bulls from 225 to 650 kg average liveweight. Each pen housed five bulls up to 400 kg average liveweight and four bulls thereafter. On CS, lying bouts were less frequent and longer than on RM and RS at 250 kg. Lying down phase 1 was longest on CS and shortest on RM. Interrupted attempts at lying down occurred twice as often on CS as on the rubber floors. Severity scores for white line haemorrhage and sole haemorrhage were higher in bulls on CS than on RM. Swelling on legs had highest scores on CS, whereas the severity score for heel horn erosion was lowest on CS. Floor type had no effect on dermatitis, leg hairlessness and skin damage. Both claw horn growth and wear were greater on CS than on RS and RM. Bulls on RS and CS were cleanest. Slaughter age tended to be higher and carcase conformation score tended to be lower on CS than on rubber, whereas feed intake, feed efficiency and other carcase traits were unaffected. The results indicate that rubber flooring improves animal welfare compared with concrete.

This study aimed to establish associations between the environment and animal-based measures of welfare collected on 158 Finnish farms according to the Welfare Quality® systems for pigs. The data consisted of 95 welfare assessments in fattening pigs and 103 in sows, including suckling piglets. Principal Component Analysis had previously been applied to animal-based welfare measures (ABWM) and to the 20 descriptors of QBA to identify distinct types of welfare problems (WPT) and mood (MT), respectively. Generalised linear modeling was used to investigate environmental (space allowance, group size, feeding arrangement, floor type and use of enrichment or bedding) effects on WPT and MT scores. Those ABWMs not contributing to the major WPTs, but occurring on more than 40% of the farms, were considered important and used as outcome variables as well. The most important environmental determinants of pig welfare were space allowance for fattening pigs, group size in gestation and in the use of bedding for both fattening pigs and gestating sows. Bedding decreased tail biting and signs of fighting when used as a fairly thick layer for fattening pigs. In sows, the benefits of bedding, including less frustration and bursitis, required a smaller amount of material than in fattening pigs. An increasing space allowance was advantageous for fattening pigs, although signs of fighting increased in very spacious bedded pens. The positive effects of space, including a decrease of tail lesions and a more positive mood continued at least up to 1.5 m2 per fattening pig. Signs of resource shortage in sows increased with a growing group size according to a steepening curve.

Three recently developed and published schemes to evaluate the acceptability of proposed animal experiments are discussed and compared:

1. The model developed at the request of the Dutch Veterinary Public Health Chief Inspectorate by the Department of Animal Problems of Leiden University (the ‘Dutch Model’);

2. The model proposed by the Canadian, David G Porter (the ‘Porter model’);

3. The model developed by the British Institute of Medical Ethics, published in ‘Lives in the Balance: The Ethics of Using Animals in Biomedical Research’ (the ‘IME model’).

It is concluded that the Porter model, although compact, does not have an acceptable level of discrimination; nor does it provide the researcher with any pragmatic tools to optimize the research design. The other models appear to be quite adequate for the different purposes for which they were developed. The Dutch model was developed to guide the evaluation procedure at the level of local institution-based committees (ie internal evaluation by colleagues), whereas the IME model will serve the professional officers of the United Kingdom Home Office Inspectorate (ie external evaluation).

Finally, the pragmatic consequences of the three models are discussed with respect to two hypothetical cases.

Animal welfare enhancement requires that problems are reliably identified and ranked in order to prioritise corrective actions. Welfare problems vary with the conditions in which animals are maintained. The objectives were to highlight major welfare problems for dairy cows on farms in France, and find out how farm characteristics (housing and milking systems, breed) could impact specific welfare aspects on these farms. We conducted a cross-sectional survey on 131 French dairy farms. We used the Welfare Quality® protocol, which addresses all aspects of welfare, and yields scores for principles and criteria that represent how well farms meet welfare requirements (from 0 for a very adverse situation to 100 for an excellent one). We used descriptive statistics to highlight low welfare scores, and variance analyses to compare farms. Most farms were found ‘Acceptable’ according to the Welfare Quality® classification. Principles scores for Health, Feeding and Behaviour ranged from 33 to 39. The median score for eight of the welfare criteria was below 50 (‘Pain’, ‘Integument alterations’, ‘Diseases’, ‘Comfort around resting’, ‘Social behaviours’, ‘Human-animal relationship’, ‘Positive emotional state’, ‘Hunger’), while the median score was above 50 for the four other criteria (‘Thirst’, ‘Lameness’, ‘Expression of other behaviours’, ‘Ease of movement’). The scores varied widely between farms, within and between systems. Farms with cubicles obtained lower scores for ‘Comfort around resting’, ‘Injuries’; farms with Holstein cows obtained lower scores for ‘Hunger’; farms using an automatic milking system obtained lower scores for ‘Expression of other behaviours’ and ‘Diseases’ in Holstein herds. This survey yields information on bottlenecks in dairy cow welfare with all dimensions of welfare considered together. The results can be used by stakeholders to prioritise corrective actions in welfare plans, focusing either on the whole population of farms or on farms with characteristics that are at high risk for specific welfare problems.

The behaviour of 10 adult individually-caged male cats was measured either in their normal cage or with additional objects, a log and a ball. Each cat was observed during five days in each condition. Results show an important novelty effect at the beginning of observations, especially for rubbing and paddling behaviour. Introduction of objects in the cages resulted in a decrease in inactivity and self-play activities, and an increase in sniffing objects and play behaviours with objects. This was particularly important with the ball. Whereas these modifications decreased over days with the log, a high level of activity was maintained with the ball. The importance of the movement and of the function of the object is discussed. An improved way of rearing isolated cats is suggested.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the behavioural effects of keeping circus elephants in paddocks. Therefore some species-typical behavioural characters and the occurrence of stereotyped movements were observed and compared in unshackled paddock keeping versus shackled keeping. The investigation includes 29 elephants (19 Elephas maximus, 10 Loxodonta africana) at four circuses located in Germany and in Switzerland.

The results showed that paddocks offered more freedom for comfort, social and play behaviour since such activities were observed more frequently in paddocks than in shackled keeping. Also, stereotyped movements were nearly absent in paddocks and very frequent in shackled keeping. In comparison to shackled keeping, paddocks were more suitable for the needs of elephants.

The effects of enrichment and floor type on the behaviour and welfare of cubicle loose-housed dry sows were investigated in a 2x2 factorial design with four replicates. Sixty-four dry sows were housed in groups of four in pens containing a communal exercise area and four feeding stalls. Pens were either enriched (using spent mushroom compost on suspended wood and wire flat racks) or barren (containing either a solid or part-slatted floor). Enrichment reduced aggressive behaviour, injuries, nosing the ground and lying with eyes open and led to an increase in lying with eyes closed. Floor type had no overall significant effect on sow behaviour. Presentation of spent mushroom compost on suspended racks was found to be a cheap and practical form of enrichment. Incorporation of this system into the design of cubicle loose housing could reduce many of the problems associated with this type of housing and improve the welfare of the sows.

Anthropocentric claims about the ways in which non-human animals (hereafter animals) interact in their social and non-social worlds are often used to influence decisions on how animals can or should be used by humans in various sorts of activities. Thus, the treatment of individuals is often tightly linked to how they are perceived with respect to their ability to perform behaviour patterns that suggest that they can think - have beliefs, desires, or make plans and have expectations about the future. Here, I review some basic issues in the comparative study of animal minds and discuss how matters of mind are related to matters of welfare and well-being. Much comparative research still needs to be done before any stipulative claims can be made about how an individual's cognitive abilities can be used to influence decisions about how she or he should be treated. More individuals from diverse species whose lives, sensory worlds, motor abilities and nervous systems are different from those of animals with whom we identify most readily or with whom we are the most familiar, need to be studied. As others, I stress the importance of subjectivity and common sense along with the use of empirical data in making decisions about animal welfare, and that subjective assessments should be viewed in the same critical light as are supposedly objective scientific facts. I also argue that whatever connections there are between an individual's cognitive abilities and what sorts of treatment are permissible can be overridden by that individual's ability to feel pain and to suffer. When we are uncertain, even only slightly, about their ability to experience pain or to suffer, individual animals should be given the benefit of the doubt. There is a great deal of uncertainty about the phylogenetic distribution of pain and suffering.

The decision to perform euthanasia in geriatric zoo mammals is usually a highly complex procedure involving ethical, medical, emotional and sometimes political factors. However, subsequent necropsies show that the pathological changes of organs and/or the musculoskeletal system are often already advanced. Therefore, we hypothesise that euthanasia is often delayed to the detriment of the animal's welfare. The purpose of this study was to facilitate and establish an initial, objective, decision-making framework for the euthanasia of geriatric zoo mammals. A scoring-system to assess the physical condition and quality of life in ageing zoo mammals is presented, based on retrospective and prospective investigation of 70 geriatric zoo mammals in five European zoos. Medical records and necropsy reports were studied in retrospective cases. Symptoms were monitored and recorded in prospective cases. Radiographic investigations under general anesthesia or at necropsy were performed additionally. A significant association between symptoms and pathological findings revealed that 36.9% (n = 24/65) of examined animals (n = 41/65) had pathological alterations to the musculoskeletal system and 26.2% (n = 17/65) suffered from neoplasia. Based on the individual reports, 28 veterinarians from different fields of veterinary medicine concluded that these animals had mild to severe pain, discomfort and a significantly reduced quality of life, thus strongly reducing welfare. The proposed scoring system includes all of these factors and offers a simple and reliable tool to support decision-making for euthanasia in geriatric zoo mammals.