A feeding trial with growing sheep was conducted on mixed roughage-supplement diets, to test whether roughage intake could be estimated from a known intake of a supplement and an alkane-based estimate of the supplement and roughage proportions in the diet (diet composition) without the need for separate dosing with external marker alkanes. Diets consisted of chaffed Trifolium subterraneum hay (SC), or a mix of SC and beeswax-labelled cottonseed meal (CSM) in the proportions of 7: 1, 6: 2, 5: 3 and 4: 4 (air-dry matter basis). Six sheep were given the pure SC diet and three sheep were given each of the mixed diets. Additionally, the CSM was also labelled with octatriacontane (C38) to investigate its use for labelling supplements. Due to unexpectedly low recoveries, C38 was not included in any estimation of diet composition or digestibility.

The inclusion of beeswax-labelled CSM in a SC diet resulted in lower faecal alkane recoveries (as proportions of alkane ingested; P ≤ 0·05). Within mixed diets, recoveries decreased significantly with increasing proportion of CSM, but this effect was significant (P < 0·05) only for alkanes consisting of 25, 26, 27 and 29 carbon-atoms. Estimates of diet composition were close to measured values. Daily SC intake and organic matter digestibility (OMD) differed by −3·7 to 7·2% and −2·0 to 5·7% from measured values if a mean faecal recovery, across diets, was applied for each alkane. Accuracy increased greatly if estimates were based upon faecal alkane recoveries for individual diets, instead of mean recoveries across diets (−0·3 to 0·9% and −0·2 to 0·0% for SC intake and OMD, respectively).

The results indicate that roughage intake can be estimated from a combination of known supplement intake and an estimate of diet composition, which obviates the need for separate alkane dosing to estimate intake. The method should be applicable in situations in which animals either normally receive supplements (e.g., dairy cows) or could readily be given supplements.

The origin of post-ruminal purine bases (PB) was studied in 24 growing lambs that were given a pelleted concentrate plus barley straw (C) or whole barley grain plus protein supplement (WB). Six lambs from each treatment were slaughtered at 10 and 30 days post weaning after 15N labelling of microbial nitrogen (N) and PB. Microbial contribution to digesta non-ammonia N (NAN) and PB was lower (P < 0·01) when estimated from duodenal rather than abomasal samples (0·36 v. 0·52 (s.e.d. 0·021) for NAN and 0·47 v. 0·77 (s.e.d. 0·029) for PB) as a result of endogenous contamination. In comparison with 15N, total PB/N led to higher estimates (P < 0·01) of microbial contribution to abomasal NAN in WB treatment (0·62 v. 0·46 s.e.d. 0·049). The difference was removed after correcting for microbial PB, while this effect was not observed with < the C diet, resulting in a marker by diet interaction (P < 0·05). Abomasal PB flow increased (P < 0·1) from 10 to 30 days after weaning mainly due to the higher proportion of microbial PB (0·70 v. 0·81 (s.e.d. 0·047)). Rumen apparent PB degradation did not differ between diets in older lambs, but it was proportionally 0·39 lower for WB treatment (P < 0·05) in younger lambs. When the microbial PB flow was estimated indirectly from labelled microbial N and the PB/N ratio of bacterial extracts the estimates were in agreement with those derived from PB-15N in the WB treatment but resulted in unrealistic values in lambs on diet C. Results suggest that significant proportions of dietary PB can escape rumen degradation which may lead to overestimation of microbial contribution to abomasal NAN when the PB/N ratio is used as marker. The extent of the overestimation is affected by the lamb age and grain processing.

Parameters of daily milk yield during the first three lactations of Chios ewes were estimated with random regression models. Data consisted of 42 675 test-day records of 7121 ewes from 75 flocks that had lambed between 1998 and 2000. Models fitted fourth order fixed regressions on Legendre polynomials of the number of days post partum and fourth order random regressions on the individual animal. (Co)variance components were estimated with Gibbs sampling. Lactations were analysed separately. The four eigen values accounted for 0·80 to 0·84, 0·11 to 0·15, 0·04 to 0·05 and about 0·01 of the animal variance, respectively, depending on lactation number. Animal variance estimates, including genetic and, partly, permanent environment effects, were high at the beginning of each lactation and decreased as lactation progressed, suggesting that the animal effect is most important to early daily records. Residual variance was highest in the middle of lactation, suggesting that non-systematic environmental factors play a bigger at that time. Animal correlation estimates between daily yield records ranged from 0·26 to 0·99, were highest for adjacent days and decreased for days further apart. The decline had a different shape in the three lactations and was more evident in the first, suggesting that the three lactations may be biologically distinct traits. Animal correlation estimates between daily and total lactation milk yield ranged from 0·61 to 0·98 and were highest in the middle and lowest towards the end of lactation. Early lactation daily yield had an animal correlation of 0·70 to 0·80 with total lactation milk yield, in all three lactations. Results of this study suggest that daily milk yield records in the early stages of lactation may be useful for selection of ewes with high producing ability and accurate prediction of total lactation milk yield.

The effects of 1-h soaking of a pig diet based on wheat and barley with low (4·1 g P per kg) and high (6·8 g P per kg) total phosphorus (P) content on total tract apparent digestibility and performance in growing-finishing pigs were studied in a balance and a performance trial respectively. Phosphorus bound to inositol penta- and hexaphosphate (IP5-IP6) was reduced by proportionately 0·1 in the soaked food. Soaking numerically increased the apparent digestibility of P. The digestibility of P did not differ between the dry high P and the soaked low P. Excretion of P in urine was correlated (R2 = 0·84) with the intake of digestible P. The average daily weight gain, final body weight and carcass weight were lower (P < 0·001), and the energy conversion ratio was higher (P < 0·001) in the dry low P treatment than in the other treatments. Pigs on the low P diets had lower levels of inorganic P in serum (P < 0·01) and slightly higher serum Ca values (P < 0·05) and there were no effects of soaking. The density of femur was lower (P < 0·01) in both the low P treatments than in the high P treatments, and soaking of the low P diet improved (P < 0·01) femur density. In conclusion, a 1-h soaking of pig food in water appears to be sufficient to improve P availability and growth performance.

Six cannulated wether sheep weighing 57 (s.d. 4·3) kg were used to investigate the susceptibility of unprotected and protected n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from different sources to biohydrogenation in the rumen, their uptake into plasma and effects on ruminal metabolism. The sheep were assigned to one of six dietary treatments formulated to have a similar fatty acid content (60 g/kg DM) and containing: linseed oil (LO), linseed oil absorbed into vermiculite (VLO), formic acid-formaldehyde treated whole linseed (FLS), fish oil (FO), fat encapsulated fish oil (PFO) or a mixture of fish oil and marine algae (1: 1 on an oil basis; AF), in six periods of 28 days duration in a Latin-square design. Biohydrogenation of C20:5 (n-3) and C22:6 (n-3) was high in FO at approximately 870 g/kg, but reduced to 625 and 625 g/kg respectively for PFO, and 769 and 601 g/kg respectively for AF. Ruminal biohydrogenation of C18:3 (n-3) was similar across treatments based on linseed, averaging 860 g/kg, but C18:2 (n-6) was lower (P < 0·05) in animals given VLO or FLS at 792 and 837 g/kg respectively, compared with LO (907 g/kg). Duodenal flow of C18:1 trans in animals given any of the diets containing fish oil averaged 8·4 g/day compared with 2·8 g/day in animals given diets based on linseed (P < 0·001), whilst cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid was not significantly different among treatments. Plasma C20:5 (n-3) and C22:6 (n-3) proportions were highest in animals given the AF diet (11·8 and 8·2 g per 100 g of the total fatty acids respectively) and lowest in animals given LO (2·8 and 2·7 g per 100 g of the total fatty acids respectively; P < 0·001). By contrast, plasma C18:3 (n-3) proportions were highest in animals given the LO or VLO diets at approximately 6·9 g per 100 g of the total fatty acids, and lowest in the AF treatment at 0·9 g per 100 g (P < 0·001). Duodenal non-ammonia-N flow was similar among treatments at 21·0 g/day except in animals given FLS which had the highest flow (25·9 g N per day; P < 0·01). Microbial N flow was also similar among treatments whilst microbial efficiency (g N per kg OM truly degraded in the rumen) was higher (P < 0·05) in animals given FLS than LO, FO or AF. By contrast, ruminal fibre digestion was higher (P < 0·05) in animals given LO or FO than those offered VLO, FLS, PFO or AF. In conclusion, compared with linseed oil, absorption of linseed oil into vermiculite improved duodenal flow but not plasma levels of C18:3 (n-3), whilst formic acid-formaldehyde treatment of linseed had little effect on protecting C18:3 (n-3) in the rumen, although duodenal non-ammonia nitrogen flow and microbial efficiency were improved. Compared with fish oil, the provision of marine algae or fat encapsulated fish oil resulted in a lower biohydrogenation of C22:6 (n-3) and C20:5 (n-3), and an increased duodenal flow and plasma concentration and offers the potential to favourably manipulate the n-3 fatty acid composition of sheep meat.

A photogrammetric stereo imaging system was used to capture 3-D models of live pigs, and quantitative shape measurements were extracted from cross sections of the models. Stereo images were captured of 32 pigs, divided into high-lysine and low-lysine diet groups, and 3-D models were built from the images. Each pig was imaged once per week for 14 weeks. After slaughter, 10 of the pigs were dissected for muscle and fat measurements. A sequence of algorithms was applied to the 3-D models: differential geometry to reveal surface curvature features and detect the spine; manual landmark placement; fitting a curve to the spine; determining the vertical axis of the body; placing a slice plane across the abdomen close to the P2 position; extracting a cross section; and fitting a shape model to the cross section. Differential geometry revealed many qualitative features of the musculature. The spine was a line of minimum curvature along the back. The high-lysine pigs had higher height-to-width ratios and flatter backs than the low-lysine pigs. The dissected total muscle mass had a -0·66 correlation with the flatness-of-back shape parameter, and a 0·64 correlation with weight.

The experiment was conducted to assess the effects of phytase supplementation to diets with two levels of phosphorus (P) on ileal and faecal digestibility of nutrients and phosphorus, calcium, nitrogen and energy balances in growing pigs. Fifteen Landrace × Large White × Chinese Black barrows, with an initial live weight of 22·2 kg fitted with a simple T-cannula at the distal ileum, were randomly allocated to one of the five diet treatments, according to a of cross-over design with two periods. The basal diet was typical of southern Asia with maize/rice and rapeseed/cottonseed meals. A normal (NP, supplemented with 4·8 g/kg of CaHPO4) and a low-P diet (LP, not supplemented with CaHPO4) were formulated. Both of the diets were supplemented with and without Natuphos® Phytase (500 phytase units (FTU) per kg diet). An enzyme hydrolysed casein (EHC) diet (diet 5) was also formulated to determine the flow of the ileal endogenous amino acids (AA). The results showed that both the higher level P treatment and phytase supplementation increased (P < 0·05) the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP) and energy. Phytase supplementation also increased (P < 0·05) the AID of Ca and P. Pigs given the higher level of P or the phytase diet increased apparent faecal digestibility (AFD) of DM, OM and energy. Phytase supplementation reduced (P < 0·01) faecal Ca output and increased (P < 0·05) proportional Ca retention. The higher level of P increased (P < 0·001) total P intake and P retention (P < 0·05) but did not affect the proportion of P retained (P > 0·05). Phytase supplementation did not affect P balance (P > 0·05). Pigs given the higher level P or the phytase diet had reduced (P < 0·05) faecal energy concentration, although there was no affect on urine energy output, digestible energy (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME). However, there were P × phytase effects on DE and ME (P < 0·05). There were no P × phytase effects (P > 0·05) on AID of AA except with isoleucine (P < 0·01). Phytase supplementation increased (P < 0·05) AID of histidine, isoleucine, threonine and glutamine and there was a numeric increase in AID for most of the other AA. There was P × phytase effect on AFD of histidine (P < 0·05), isoleucine (P < 0·05), methionine (P < 0·05) and threonine (P < 0·01). Phytase supplementation increased the AFD of isoleucine (P < 0·05), threonine (P < 0·01) and tended to increase AFD of tyrosine (P < 0·05). The level of MCP affected the AFD of lysine (P < 0·01), threonine (P < 0·05), aspartic acid (P < 0·05). Phytase supplementation increased true ileal digestibility of histidine (P < 0·05), isoleucine (P < 0·001), threonine (P = 0·001), glutamine (P < 0·01), respectively. These results indicate that phytase used in the present study was able to improve the utilization of DM, OM, CP, Ca, P, energy and amino acid in a maize/rice and rapeseed/cottonseed meal based diet and reduce total output of them in manure.

Forty-eight pigs, weaned at 27 days of age at an average body weight of 7·55 kg were used in a 19-day experiment to investigate the influence of microbial phytase on zinc utilization and to calculate equivalency values of zinc as sulphate for microbial phytase. Eight experimental diets were formulated: a maize-soya-bean meal basal diet containing 30 mg of zinc per kg supplemented with 10, 25, 40 or 100 mg of zinc from sulphate (ZnSO4, 7H2O) per kg or with 100, 250, 500 or 750 units (U) of microbial phytase (3- phytase from Aspergillus niger, Natuphos ®) per kg. The dietary supplies of calcium and phosphorus were adjusted accounting for the release of these elements by microbial phytase. The copper concentration in the diets was 11 mg/kg. Pigs were given the basal diet for a 7-day adjustment period prior to the 19-day experimental period. At the end of the experiment, bone ash, phosphorus and calcium concentrations as well as plasma and liver copper concentrations were independent of the diet (P > 0·10). The zinc status of piglets was assessed through plasma alkaline phosphatase activity (APA) and zinc concentration, bone zinc concentration and liver zinc concentration. Plasma zinc, plasma APA and bone zinc increased linearly (P < 0·001) and quadratically (P < 0·01, P < 0·001 and P < 0·001, respectively) with zinc added. These parameters also increased linearly (P < 0·001) and quadratically (P < 0·05, P < 0·001 and P < 0·05, respectively) with phytase added. Liver zinc increased quadratically (P < 0·05) with zinc added and tended to increase linearly with phytase added (P = 0·077). Linear and non-linear response equations of indicators of zinc status to zinc added and phytase added were developed and used to calculate zinc equivalency values of phytase. Non-linear models were linear plateau models for zinc added and exponential models for phytase added. Plasma APA, plasma zinc and bone zinc were maximized when zinc added reached 43, 54 and 56 mg/kg of diet, respectively. The mean function of equivalency of zinc as sulphate (Zn, mg/kg of diet) for microbial phytase (Phyt, U per kg of diet) was Zn = 49·9 − 58·3 e−0·00233Phyt. From this equation it is calculated that 250, 500, and 750 U of 3-phytase from Aspergillus niger can avoid the addition of 17, 32 and 40 mg of zinc as sulphate in a piglet diet. Zinc ingested and, in turn, zinc excreted, may be proportionately reduced by almost 0·30 by replacing 30 mg of zinc as sulphate by 500 U of phytase as Natuphos ® in a piglet maize and soya-bean meal diet formulated to contain 100 mg of zinc per kg.

Carrying multiple foetuses leads to a decline in lamb birth weight. The rate of litter size-dependent birth weight decline (LSDBD) in a population can be obtained by calculating the linear relationship between the reciprocal of lamb's birth weight and the respective litter size. Based on published data on lamb birth weight and by using the reciprocal approach, LSDBD rate was calculated for 70 purebred and crossbred sheep populations in which birth weight of lambs born as singles ranged from 1·3 to 6·3 kg. High variability in LSDBD was found. Both genetic and environmental factors may contribute to the variability of this trait.

Three 28-day trials were carried out to determine the optimum dietary lysine concentration for growing pigs between 20 and 68 kg. There were 96 pairs of pigs in experiment 1 (20 to 41 kg), 72 pairs in experiment 2 (40 to 68 kg) and 42 groups (14 per group) in exp. 3 (40 to 62 kg). All experiments were arranged as randomized complete block designs, blocked on the basis of sex and start weight. Treatments consisted of isoenergetic (13·8 MJ digestible energy per kg) diets with increasing lysine concentrations. Dietary lysine concentrations were 9·7, 10·7, 11·6, 12·5, 13·5 and 14·4 g/kg (experiment 1) and 9·0, 9·9, 11·0, 12·1, 13·1 and 14·1 g/kg (experiments 2 and 3). Response curves were fitted to the data to determine the optimum dietary lysine concentration for maximum average daily gain (ADG) and minimum food conversion ratio (FCR). In experiment 1, ADG and FCR responded quadratically to dietary lysine content (P < 0·01 and P < 0·05). Male pigs had better FCR and lysine conversion ratio (LCR) than female pigs (P < 0·05). In experiment 2, there was a quadratic effect of increasing dietary lysine concentration on FCR (P < 0·05). Male pigs had lower daily food intake (DFI, P < 0·01) and daily lysine intake (DLYIN, P < 0·01) and had better FCR (P < 0·01) and LCR (P < 0·01) than female pigs. In experiment 3, there was a quadratic effect of increasing lysine concentration on FCR (P < 0·05). Male pigs had better FCR and LCR (P < 0·05) than female pigs. In all experiments, increasing dietary lysine concentration resulted in an increase in DLYIN and a deterioration in LCR (all linear, P < 0·001). Regression analysis predicted optimum dietary lysine concentrations for maximum ADG at 13·1 and 12·7 g lysine per kg in experiments 1 and 2, and minimum FCR at lysine concentrations of 14·6, 12·2 and 12·7 g/kg for experiments 1, 2 and 3 respectively. In conclusion, the optimum dietary lysine concentration for maximum ADG and minimum FCR could be predicted using quadratic models and although males had better FCR than females, optimum dietary lysine concentrations were similar for both sexes.

This experiment investigated the effects of feeding graded levels of a soya-bean protein product (HP300, Hamlet Protein A/S Company, Denmark) on endogenous ileal lysine loss, apparent ileal amino acid digestibility, standardized true ileal amino acid digestibility determined using the protein-free (PF) method, and real ileal amino acid digestibility determined using the homoarginine (HA) method. The soya-bean protein product was obtained by purifying and defattening soya bean via a proprietary microbial process that decreased the level of trypsin inhibitors and other anti-nutritional factors in soya bean. Six barrows, with an initial body weight of 37·4 ± 1·3 kg, were surgically fitted with simple T-cannulae at the distal ileum and offered six maize-starch-based diets according to a 6 × 6 Latin-square design. The six diets were formulated to provide 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, or 250 g crude protein (CP) per kg by dietary inclusion of 0, 90, 182, 274, 367 or 460 g/kg of soya-bean protein. Five kg of soya-bean protein product was guanidinated in order to estimate endogenous amino acid flow and real ileal amino acid digestibility. Chromium III oxide (5 g/kg) was included in the non-guanidinated diets while dysprosium chloride (0·1 g/kg) was included in the guanidinated diets as an indigestible marker. The experimental periods lasted 8 days. On day 6 of each period, ileal digesta was collected for 24 h to determine apparent and standardized true ileal amino acid digestibility of the non-guanidinated diets. At 08:00 h on day 8, the pigs were given a single meal of the diets containing guanidinated protein and their ileal digesta was collected for 24 h in order to determine the total HA flow and the real ileal digestibility of lysine. Endogenous ileal lysine flow appeared to follow a sigmoid curve starting at about 370 mg/kg dry matter (DM) intake for pigs given the PF diet and continuing asymptotically to about 750 mg/kg DM intake when the inclusion level of the soya-bean protein product was increased to 182 g/kg (100 g/kg of CP). The endogenous ileal lysine flow for pigs given the PF diet was similar (P > 0·05) to that of pigs given 90 g/kg soya-bean protein (50 g/kg of CP) and it increased sharply (P < 0·05) as the level of soya-bean protein increased from 90 to 182 g/kg (50 to 100 g/kg of CP). Thereafter, it was relatively constant (P > 0·05). With an increase in soya-bean protein, there was a quadratic increase (P < 0·01) in the apparent ileal digestibilities for all amino acids except valine and phenylalanine. Standardized true ileal amino acid digestibility decreased (P < 0·05) with an increase in soya-bean protein level. However, real ileal amino acid digestibilities were not influenced (P > 0·05) by soya-bean protein in the diet at levels between 90 and 367 g/kg (50 and 200 g/kg of CP). In conclusion, endogenous ileal lysine flow was not constant and was significantly affected by soya-bean protein level. The results of this study suggest that standardized true ileal amino acid digestibility should be measured between 100 and 200 g/kg of CP (182 and 367 g/kg soya-bean protein) while real ileal amino acid digestibility is unaffected by protein levels between 50 and 200 g/kg of CP (90 and 367 g/kg soya-bean protein).

The apparent ileal digestibility coefficients of amino acids in 107 samples representing 22 food ingredients were determined using 6-week-old broiler chickens. The ingredients assayed included five cereals (barley, maize, sorghum, triticale and wheat), two cereal by-products (rice polishings and wheat middlings), four oilseed meals (canola, cottonseed, soya-bean and sunflower meals), full-fat canola, maize gluten meal, four grain legumes (chickpeas, faba beans, field peas and lupins) and five animal protein sources (blood, feather, fish, meat and meat and bone meals). The mean ileal digestibility coefficients of amino acids in wheat and maize were higher than those in sorghum, triticale and barley. However, variations observed in individual amino acid digestibilities among samples within cereal type were greater than those determined between cereals. Threonine and lysine were the least digestible indispensable amino acids in the five cereals evaluated. The most digestible indispensable amino acid was phenylalanine in wheat and, leucine in maize and sorghum. In the case of the wheat middlings and rice polishings, threonine was the least digestible indispensable amino acid and arginine was the best digested.

In the oilseed meals assayed, amino acid digestibility was highest for soya-bean and sunflower meals, intermediate for canola meal and lowest for cottonseed meal. Ileal digestibility coefficients of amino acids in lupins were found to be slightly lower than those in soya-bean meal. The amino acid digestibilities of field peas, faba beans and chickpeas were considerably lower than those of lupins. Digestibility of arginine was the highest and that of threonine was the lowest of the indispensable amino acids in oilseed meals and grain legumes, except in cottonseed meal. Lysine was the least digestible amino acid in cottonseed meal.

In the animal protein sources assayed, digestibility coefficients of amino acids in blood meal were high, intermediate in fish meal, and low in meat meal, meat and bone meal and feather meal. Variation in amino acid digestibility coefficients determined for blood meal samples was small. However, wide variations in amino acid digestibilities were observed for other animal protein sources, highlighting significant batch-to-batch differences. In particular, marked variations were determined for meat meal and meat and bone meal samples. Cystine was the least digested amino acid in animal protein meals, with the exception of blood meal in which isoleucine had the lowest digestibility. The limitations of using apparent digestibility values in diet formulations and the concept of the standardized digestibility system to overcome these limitations are discussed.

Plasma cortisol concentrations were determined from the blood of eight mature female reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) after an intravenous injection of either saline (control) or 100, 250 or 500 μg of synthetic ACTH. Blood samples were collected at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 120, 150, and 180 min after the injections. The aims were to determine the appropriate dose of ACTH for adrenal stimulation tests, to define the dose level of ACTH which elicited a maximal cortisol response and to describe the range of blood cortisol concentrations for reference when evaluating the stress responses of reindeer.

The mean plasma cortisol concentrations (s.e.) at the zero sample times (t0) of the control and the ACTH treatments varied between 93·4 (11·8) and 132·5 (18·1) nmol/l. The total plasma cortisol response (area under curve, AUC, nmol/l × min) increased with increasing dose of ACTH (P < 0·001). The AUC of the control treatment was significantly smaller than of the ACTH treatments (P < 0·001). The highest dose of ACTH (500 μg) gave a significantly bigger AUC than the lowest dose (100 μg) (P = 0·008). The maximal plasma cortisol concentrations (CMAX) were achieved within 60 min of the ACTH injections. The ranges of individual CMAX were 59·0 to 136·8 nmol/l for the control treatment, and 110·0 to 252·0, 152·0 to 247·5 and 135·1 to 257·1 nmol/l for 100, 250 and 500 μg ACTH, respectively. The difference in CMAX was significant between the control treatment and the ACTH treatments (P < 0·001) but not between the different doses of ACTH. The plasma cortisol concentrations at the end of the observation period at t180 were not significantly affected by the ACTH treatment (P > 0·05).

In conclusion, the 100-μg dose of ACTH was sufficient to produce a significant cortisol response compared with the control treatment. Increasing the dose did not increase the maximal response, but tended to elongate the response profile. The blood sampling frequency used in the study was found suitable for detection of the cortisol response in reindeer.

The salinity tolerance of Javan rusa deer (Cervus timorensis russa) was investigated with seven stags, aged 4·5 years. Animals were offered a medium-quality chaffed lucerne hay and given five different levels of water salinity: (a) control (570 mg/kg of total dissolved salts (TDS)) and (b) ‘saline’ water with TDS contents of 1000, 3500, 6000 and 8500 mg/kg. Food intake, food digestibility and nitrogen balance were not affected by increasing salt concentration in drinking water, however the drinking water (DW) intake, the total (food plus drinking) water intake and the DW:dry-matter ratio increased with increasing salt concentration. Some deer given water containing 8500 mg TDS per kg showed signs of stress which included large between-day fluctuations in water intake, opening of the orbital gland, head shaking, and rapid breathing. Rusa deer can tolerate drinking water containing 6000 mg TDS per kg for at least 9 days without harmful effect but may be unable to tolerate water with 8500 mg TDS per kg.

Both barley and wheat contain anti-nutritive factors such as glucans and xylans respectively. However, β-glucans have been shown to promote lactic acid bacteria in the large intestine and this would be very beneficial in the absence of in-diet antimicrobial growth promoter. A 2 × 2 factorial was used to investigate the interaction between cereal type (wheat v. barley) and lactose inclusion (170 v. 275 g/kg) on piglet performance post weaning. Two hundred and sixteen weaned piglets (24 days of age, 6·0 kg weight) were blocked on the basis of weight and were assigned to one of four dietary treatments. The treatments were as follows (T1) 170 g/kg lactose and wheat, (T2) 275 g/kg lactose and wheat, (T3) 170 g/kg lactose, wheat and 200 g/kg barley and (T4) 275 g/kg lactose, wheat and 200 g/kg barley. The diets were formulated to have identical concentrations of digestible energy (16 MJ/kg) and total lysine (16 g/kg). The pigs were offered the diets ad libitum for 33 days post weaning. There was a significant interaction (P < 0·05) between cereal source and lactose level in average daily gain (ADG). In wheat-based diets the inclusion of 275 gkg lactose resulted in a significant improvement in ADG, compared with the 170 g/kg lactose inclusion. However, in barley-based diets the inclusion of 275 g/kg lactose significantly (P < 0·05) reduced ADG. There was no significant effect of cereal type or lactose level on food intake or food conversion ratio (FCR). The inclusion of 275 g/kg lactose significantly reduced nitrogen digestibility (P< 0·01). In barley-based diets, the high level of lactose inclusion depressed digestibilities of dry matter (P < 0·01), organic matter (P < 0·05) and gross energy (P < 0·05) compared with low lactose inclusion. However, in wheat-based diets, lactose level had no significant effect. In conclusion, improvements in performance were achieved up to 275 g/kg lactose in wheat-based diets. However, in barley-based diets a dietary lactose level of 170 g/kg was adequate.

Fall-calving multiparous Angus × Hereford cows 3 to 10 years of age were stratified by age in a three by two factorial treatment arrangement to evaluate the efficacy of modifying stocking rate and supplementation strategy to manage cow body condition and production parameters over a 5-year study. Efficacy was evaluated quarterly in association with calving, breeding, weaning, and mid way between weaning and calving (i.e. in August). Three protein supplementation strategies (none, standard, strategic) were imposed across both a moderate (0·3 cows per ha) and a high (0·4 cows per ha) stocking rate. In the strategically supplemented group, protein supplement was provided to cows with a body condition score <5·5 at the quarterly evaluations. There was an effect of supplementation on pregnancy rate, which in combination with previously established culling practices resulted in different age profiles amongst supplementation strategies in years 2 to 5 (P < 0·01). Two statistical analyses were therefore conducted to dissociate the confounding effects of supplementation strategy and age. One model included the effect of stocking rate, supplementation strategy, production year, and all interactions; the second included the addition of age and its interactive effects. Stocking rate and supplementation strategy affected pregnancy rate in each of the models (P = 0·003 and P = 0·10, respectively). Standard, non-supplemented and strategically supplemented animals had estimated pregnancy rates of 0·83, 0·76, and 0·79, respectively (P = 0·10). The effects of nutrition on both calving interval and birth weight were independent of the model employed. Animals that were not supplemented had extended calving intervals (P = 0·06), but there was no effect of stocking rate (P > 0·10). Birth weight was not affected by supplementation strategy or stocking rate (P > 0·10). The lower 205-day weights of calves on a heavy compared with moderate stocking rate was independent of age (P = 0·02). However, the increased 205-day weight of calves born to strategically supplemented cows compared with those born to unsupplemented cows was only evident when data were not corrected for differences in age among groups (P = 0·03). Likewise, analyses of cow condition parameters using models without and with age resulted in different interpretations. These results suggest that strategic and standard supplementation result in similar animal performance and that the improvement in herd productivity associated with altering stocking rate and supplementation may partially be due to altered herd age dynamics.

Two experiments were undertaken to investigate the effect of herbage allowance and concentrate food level offered to twin-bearing ewes in the last 6 weeks of pregnancy on ewe and lamb performance. In each study, 96 twin-bearing Greyface (Border Leicester × Scottish Blackface), Rouge × Greyface and Texel × Greyface ewes were used. In experiment 1, the ewes were allocated to eight treatments consisting of two herbage allowances (1·3 and 2·6 kg herbage dry matter per ewe per day) and four concentrate food levels ranging from zero to 1000 g per day. In experiment 2, ewes were offered four herbage allowances (1·3, 1·75, 2·2 and 2·6 kg herbage dry matter per ewe per day) and zero or 500 g concentrates per day. In experiment 1, herbage allowance and concentrate food level had no significant effect on lamb birth weight, lamb mortality or lamb performance up to weaning. Herbage dry matter intake decreased linearly with increasing concentrate food level with a substitution rate of 18 g of herbage dry matter per 100 g concentrate food level. In experiment 2, lamb birth weight increased with increasing herbage allowance (P < 0·01) and with increasing concentrate food level (P < 0·01). However, lamb performance to weaning was unaffected by late pregnancy nutrition. The satisfactory levels of performance obtained with ewes offered grass-only diets in late pregnancy indicates that grazed grass is a high nutritive value food for twin-bearing ewes in late pregnancy.

Twenty-four twin-bearing mature Mule ewes were used to evaluate the effects of feeding ensiled red clover (Trifolium pratense), lucerne (Medicago sativa) or perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) during late pregnancy on subsequent ewe and lamb performance. Eight weeks prior to lambing the ewes were individually penned and offered one of the treatment forages ad libitum (no. = 8 per silage). All ewes were supplemented with molassed sugar-beet shreds to avoid dietary energy being a limiting factor and to ensure the responses were primarily attributable to the forage protein content. Individual intakes of the ewes were determined daily and weekly measurements of ewe live weight and body condition score were made. The ewes were also scanned weekly for depths of subcutaneous fat and longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle. Blood samples were taken at 6, 4, 2, and 1 week(s) before lambing, 24 h after lambing and at 3 weeks after lambing and were analysed for serum concentrations of total protein (TP), albumin, urea, beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and plasma concentrations of glucose and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA). After lambing all ewes and their lambs were turned out to graze together on a ryegrass sward. The lambs were weighed at birth and at weekly intervals thereafter until 12 weeks post partum. The lucerne silage offered had a higher dry matter (DM) content than the red clover and ryegrass silages (367, 305 and 314 g DM per kg fresh matter, respectively; P < 0·001). Forage type significantly affected crude protein (CP) concentration (240, 215 and 182 g CP per kg DM for lucerne, red clover and ryegrass silages, respectively) and metabolizable energy (ME) density (11·1, 11·6 and 10·8 MJ ME per kg DM respectively). Ewes offered the legume silages had higher intakes of DM, CP and ME than ewes offered ryegrass silage (P < 0·05), which was reflected in higher ewe live-weight gain (P < 0·05) but not in litter birth weight (P > 0·05). Silage treatment affected serum concentrations of TP, albumin, globulins and urea during the last 4 weeks of pregnancy (P < 0·05). Lambs born from ewes offered lucerne and red clover silages prior to lambing had higher growth rates from birth to 3 weeks of age than those from ewes offered ryegrass silage (320, 323 and 282 g/day, respectively; P < 0·05). Lamb live weight at 12 weeks of age was higher for lambs from ewes that had been offered the red clover silage, at 29·1 kg compared with 26·7 and 27·1 kg for lambs from ewes previously offered lucerne and ryegrass silages (P < 0·05). In conclusion, the results showed that red clover and lucerne silages are better able to meet nutrient requirements of ewes in late pregnancy than grass silage.

Concentrations of potentially toxic metals (PTMs) in the livers of pregnant, mature ewes and their 110 day foetuses, and in 6-month old lambs born to other ewes, were determined. The animals had been reared on pastures fertilized for 5 years with either sewage sludge (treated; T) or conventional inorganic fertilizer (control; C). The effects of treatment on patterns of accumulation of PTMs differed with stage of development and with individual PTM. In the liver of lambs, concentrations of Pb were elevated in T compared with C liver (P < 0·01), while Cu and Zn were lower (P < 0·001) in T than C liver. By contrast, in ewe liver, Cu concentrations were lower in T than C liver (P < 0·05), as in lambs, but there were no other treatment differences in PTM concentration. Ewe and lamb tissue data were not directly comparable because they were exposed to different diets but mean concentrations of Cd, Ni and Pb were approximately two- to four-fold higher in ewe than lamb liver while mean Cu concentrations were approximately five-fold lower, suggesting that more prolonged exposure to PTMs may have enhanced treatment differences in tissue PTM concentrations. Mean foetal PTM concentrations were not significantly affected by treatment. It is concluded that the repeated application of sludge to pasture is associated with altered, but not necessarily increased, rates of accumulation of PTMs in liver tissue, that rates of accumulation depend on the individual PTM measured and that they are probably influenced by duration and route of exposure and source of nutrient. Limited observations suggested that there was little effect of year, and associated variation in climatic conditions and herbage growth, on PTM accumulation.

Finishing bulls need increasingly large cubicles throughout their growth, and optimal cubicle dimensions may differ from those used for dairy cows. The space requirements of finishing bulls was investigated by observing standing-up and lying-down behaviour, lying duration and number of lying bouts, as well as the cleanliness of cubicles and animals before and after increasing cubicle size at four different points in time. Lying area in the cubicles measured 120 × 70 cm at the start and 185 × 110 cm at the end of the finishing period (approx. at 160 and 550 kg, respectively). Twenty animals kept in four groups were observed at weights of approximately 220, 330, 380 and 500 kg before and after cubicle dimensions were increased. The proportion of standing-up events with more than one head lunge decreased with enlargement of the cubicles (P = 0·01). As cubicle size increased, bulls hit the partition rails less on standing up, except at 220 kg weight where the pattern was inverted (interaction: P = 0·001). Partitions were also hit less on lying down as cubicle size increased, except at 220 kg weight with an inverse pattern (interaction: P = 0·01). The number of exploratory head sweeps before lying down did not change with cubicle enlargement (P > 0·5). Bulls slipped more often with cubicle enlargement, except at 380 kg where the difference was inverted (interaction: P = 0·03). They never fell and never turned around in the cubicles. In general, both animals and cubicles were very clean. On average, lying duration decreased (P < 0·01) while the number of lying bouts tended to increase (P = 0·052) with enlargement of the cubicles but the absolute differences were small. Consequently at each point in time, the smaller cubicles still seemed to provide sufficient lying space for the bulls. If the impacts with the partitions were minor and did not represent a serious welfare concern, as suggested by qualitative observations, the cubicle dimensions used could be considered suitable for housing the type of finishing bulls used in this study.