A small tree of yew-like appearance, but differing mainly in having a spike of pollen cones with small scale leaves positioned between whorls of sporophylls, and females with yew-like arils which are white, rather than red, at maturity.

Gadamer’s attitude to Collingwood was marked by ambivalence: while promoting the Englishman on the one hand, Gadamer claimed on the other that the fundamental dimension of “hermeneutical mediation” had simply escaped him. In this paper, I aim both to assess Gadamer’s debt to Collingwood and the prima facie strength of his objections. First, I reconstruct steps by which ideas of Collingwood found their place in Gadamer’s hermeneutics in the 1950s, including the central “axiom of all hermeneutics”: the thesis that “we can understand a text only when we have understood the question to which it is an answer.” Second, I examine Gadamer’s main objections to Collingwood, the first one being based on a misunderstanding of Collingwood’s stance, while the second one hits home, and I argue in the final section that at issue here is Collingwood’s claim that it is possible to rethink exactly the same thought as that of, say, an historical agent, while Gadamer holds precisely the opposite view, that this is never possible.

Neurocysticercosis (NNC) is caused by the larval form of the pork tapeworm Taenia solium and is the most common parasitic infection of the CNS worldwide. Taenia in particular is commonly endemic to Central and South America, India, Sub-Saharan Africa, and East Asia, and infections have become more common with the expansion of travel and immigration.

Caused by Clostridium botulinum – a neurotoxic, spore-forming, obligate anaerobic bacilli – botulism is most commonly acquired by ingesting the toxin through home-canned or home-processed foods, or ingesting the preformed spores by infants. Botulism can also be acquired through a wound, as C botulinum is commonly found in the soil.

This chapter explores how enslaved people developed legal know-how about Castilian laws of slavery and freedom, and shared and exchanged such information with others. In particular, the chapter focuses on the history of enslaved Black people’s determination to raise capital or credit to purchase their liberty from their enslavers. The chapter explores how enslaved Black men and women often plotted their paths to liberty through economic decisions by focusing on the lives of enslaved Black people who resided in the towns along the Camino Real in New Spain between Veracruz and Mexico City during a time of economic boom in the late sixteenth century. Notarial records that cataloged the self-purchase and liberation of enslaved people in port towns of the Spanish Atlantic often reveal how enslaved Black people developed social ties and capital among kin, friends, and charitable residents, and consorted with people from varied socioeconomic backgrounds who lived or passed through the places where they resided. These records index a history of conversations about strategies to obtain liberty among enslaved Black people and relationships across different socioeconomic spheres that allowed for some enslaved people to access precious credit to pay for their liberty.

On the standard “Wollheimian” reading of Collingwood’s aesthetics, Collingwood held that something is art in the true sense of the word when it involves an act of “expression” – understood in a particular way – on the part of the artist, and that artworks in all art-forms are “ideal” entities that, while externalizable, exist first and foremost in the mind of the expressive artist. I begin by providing a fuller account of the Wollheimian reading. I then survey challenges to and defenses of this reading, identifying residual difficulties confronting anyone who seeks to defend Collingwood. I attempt to resolve these difficulties by developing the idea that we take at face value Collingwood’s (overlooked) claim that the work of art is identical to the expressive activity of the artist rather than being identical to the expressive product of that activity, reading this claim in light of Collingwood’s talk about the painter as one who “paints imaginatively.”

Also known as “Wallenberg syndrome,” lateral medullary syndrome is a common brainstem stroke syndrome and is caused by ischemia of the dorsolateral medulla, which is nourished by the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA), which comes off the vertebral artery. In the majority of cases, the culprit vessel is the vertebral artery itself causing artery-to-artery embolism. This vascular occlusion produces a wedge-shaped infarct in the dorso-lateral medulla, posterior to the inferior olivary nucleus. Though it was first described by Swiss physician Gaspard Vieusseux in 1808, it was later explained in more detail by German neurologist Adolf Wallenberg in 1895, whose name this syndrome still carries.

Moderate to large in size, tall and usually long-lived evergreen trees, with multiple slender, widely spaced branch and branchlet systems bearing typically willow-like (salignoid) leaves, which are dorsiventrally flattened to form distinctive upper and lower surfaces, each with a raised midrib along the dorsal side. The whole forms, when mature, usually broad open crowns borne from smoothly thin-barked trunks.

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) is a syndrome caused by increased intracranial pressure without a mass lesion. In the past, IIH has been known by many names since being first discovered by German internist and surgeon Heinrich Quincke in 1897, shortly after developing the lumbar puncture. Dr. Quincke first named IIH “meningitis serosa.” Just a few years later in 1904, German neurologist Max Nonne first published the term pseudotumor cerebri after noticing that the symptoms of IIH were similar to those found in patients with intracranial masses. This was later termed benign intracranial hypertension by J. Foley in 1955 to avoid the connotation of malignancy to the general public; however, given the possibility of permanent vision loss in untreated cases, and thus not “benign,” this name has fallen out of favor.

Icy worlds with subsurface oceans are potentially among the most common repositories of liquid water in the Universe. Moreover, the solar system is confirmed to host a number of such worlds, notably: Europa, Enceladus, and Titan. Motivated by these considerations, this chapter examines the habitability of icy worlds from a general standpoint. The oceanic properties of Europa, Enceladus, and Titan are reviewed, followed by a simple analysis of the physical conditions in which subsurface oceans may be supported. The pathways for the formation of the building blocks of life, their assembly into polymers, and subsequent delivery to the subsurface ocean are elucidated. The possible constraints on the availability of energy sources and bioessential elements are delineated, as well as the types of organisms and ecosystems that could exist. The chapter concludes by briefly speculating about the trajectories of biological evolution conceivable on icy worlds.

The nature of prejudice and bigotry have changed in recent decades. In most communities it is unacceptable to be openly racist, sexist, or homophobic. Norms against prejudice have certainly changed. It is true that prejudice directed toward many groups has decreased; however, individual attitudes have not necessarily caught up with changing norms. As a result, some people hide their prejudices, attempting to mask their discrimination in neutral-seeming behavior. Others truly believe they are not prejudiced, even when they are. Social psychologists have spent recent decades measuring and mapping the nature of subtle, covert, and implicit forms of contemporary prejudice. Benign Bigotry critically examines seven contemporary myths and assumptions that reflect prejudice that appears common sense, even harmless, but actually reveal the perniciousness and insidiousness of contemporary prejudice. Benign Bigotry critically analyzes: (1) the assumption that prejudice is an individual-only problem; (2) that people in outgroups are all alike; (3) that those accused of a crime are likely guilty of something; (4) that feminists are manhaters; (5) that LGBTQ+ people flaunt their sexuality; (6) that those who claim racial colorblindness are not racists; and (7) that affirmative action amounts to reverse racism.

In this chapter we consider two examples of the situation when the classicalobservables should be described by a noncommutative (quantum-like)probability space. A possible experimental approach to find quantum-like correlationsfor classical disordered systems is discussed. The interpretation ofnoncommutative probability in experiments with classical systems as a resultof context (complex of experimental physical conditions) dependence ofprobability is considered.

At the turn of the seventeenth century, Felipa de la Cruz penned two letters to her freed husband who had moved from Sevilla to Veracruz in New Spain. These letters reveal extended discussions of Cruz’s commitment to securing liberty for herself and their children, as she reminded her husband not to forget her desire for freedom. Felipa de la Cruz’s letters hold immense historical value as they are among the earliest known letters penned by an enslaved Black woman in the Atlantic world that have survived in a historical archive. Reading the private correspondence between Felipa de la Cruz and her absent husband also reveals the day-to-day lives of enslaved people in an urban environment. The Coda presents these two letters transcribed in Spanish as well as in English translation. The Coda also includes a map of the social ties of a generation of free and liberated Black Sevillians who were Cruz’s contemporaries in the late sixteenth century (approximately 1569–1626). The map and extended key allow readers to trace some of Felipa de la Cruz’s Black neighbors who also had ties with the Spanish Americas, and their respective socioeconomic ties across the city.

A major step towards the first constant-factor approximation algorithm for the Asymmetric TSP was made by Svensson. He devised a constant-factor approximation algorithm for Asymmetric Graph TSP, which is the special case of the Asymmetric TSP with c(e)=1 for all e ∈ E.

In this chapter, we present Svensson’s algorithm for the Asymmetric Graph TSP. We also incorporate some improvements, from Traub and Vygen, who gave a variant of Svensson’s algorithm with improved approximation ratio. Moreover, we present an improved algorithm for finding a graph subtour cover, which is the main subroutine of Svensson’s algorithm. Overall, we will obtain an approximation ratio of 8+ε for Asymmetric Graph TSP, for every ε>0.

Almost all techniques presented in this chapter will be used again in Chapters 7 and 8 for the general Asymmetric TSP.

At some point in the first century BCE, Yang Yun, one of nine ministers at the Western Han court, fell from the emperor’s grace. His uprightness, incorruptibility, and administrative skills were appreciated far and wide, but Yang Yun’s tendency to brag about these abilities, combined with a personality that appeared somewhat aloof, was destined to create friction. In 56 BCE, a series of charges led to his denouncement and his being stripped of his official position and noble title. Yang Yun was spared the death penalty, at least for the time being, to live a commoner’s life beyond the imperial palace. In his own words, ‘I lead my wife and children, and they join my efforts in plowing fields and planting mulberries, in watering orchards and kitchen gardens, in managing money-making ventures from which we pay taxes to the state thereby’.

Chapter 1 addresses the false belief that prejudice and discrimination are individual in nature and not systemic or institutional. Many people believe that racism, sexism, or homophobia comprise an individual’s negative feelings toward marginalized groups – a person has hate in their heart and discriminates against the relevant target. It is certainly the case that people can hate members of certain groups and that hate can manifest in discrimination. However, inequality is also refleted in insitutions. It is systemic and structural. That is, inequality is reflected in laws, policies, and practices, and is baked into insititutions such as health care, the criminal legal system, marriage, education, the military, and so on. Chapter 1 describes the key terms associated with systemic inequality, and describes the process by which systemic inequality is established and maintained. The chapter concludes with strategies to reduce systemic and structural inequality.