Centrorhynchus globocaudatus (Zeder, 1800) Lühe, 1911 (Centrorhynchidae) was reported in birds of prey. Our population from Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus (Falconidae) and Buteo buteo Linnaeus (Accipitridae) in northern Italy was morphologically distinct from others described elsewhere. The worms are elongate and cylindrical. Proboscis long, apically truncated and bare, with wider base and variably faint constriction at point of attachment of receptacle. Large anterior hooks well rooted; posterior spiniform hooks with reduced roots; transitional hooks with scutiform roots in-between. Four tubular cement glands extend into prominent ducts overlapping a large Saefftigen's pouch. Bursa large, with sensory plates. Vagina with laterally slit orifice in sub-ventral pit of globular terminal extension. Thick-shelled eggs ovoid without polar prolongation of fertilization membrane. In our specimens, proboscis hooks, receptacle, male reproductive system, and lemnisci especially in males varied in size from those from Ukraine, India, Egypt, Kyrgystan, Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Asian Soviet Republics. Our description of the Italian specimens includes new morphological information supported by scanning electron microscopy and microscope images, molecular analysis and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA) of hooks. Additional new details of proboscis hook roots, micropores and micropore distribution are described. Metal composition of hooks (EDXA) demonstrated high levels of calcium and phosphorous, and high levels of sulphur in core and cortical layers of eggs. The molecular profile based on sequences of 18S and cytochrome c oxidase 1 genes is also provided, as well as phylogenetic reconstructions including all available sequences of the family Centrorhynchidae, although further sequences are needed in order to clarify their phylogenetic relationships.

The species of the genus Dirofilaria are filarial parasites causing zoonotic infections in humans with an increasing incidence in temperate and tropical areas of the world. Due to its classification as a vector-borne disease, the most important factors influencing dirofilariosis transmission are those related to climate, such as temperature and humidity. However, other factors linked with human behaviour can influence the distribution of the parasite. Although the Russian Federation could be considered as a non-suitable area for Dirofilaria spp. transmission due to its climatic conditions, one third of the human cases of dirofilariosis have been declared in this country. Here, seroepidemiological data on human dirofilariosis for five different regions distributed throughout the Russian Federation (Rostov, Moscow, Ekaterinburg, Yakutia and Khabarovsk) were obtained. A total of 940 serum samples from totally random donors living in these areas were analysed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of anti-Dirofilaria immitis immunoglobulin G antibodies. Similar seroprevalence data ranging from 3.41% in Yakutia to 6.95% in Khabarovsk, with no significant correlation with climatic data of yearly average temperature and rainfall from these regions were found. These results suggest that other factors probably related to human behaviour, and not only climatic conditions, might be facilitating the spread of human dirofilariosis in these areas.

Pseudoterranoviasis is a zoonotic disease caused by nematode larvae of species within the genus Pseudoterranova (seal worm, cod worm). Most infections are gastrointestinal, oesophageal or pharyngeal, but here we report a nasal infection. A 33-year-old patient suffering from rhinitis for 1.5 years recovered a worm larva from the nose. Diagnosis was performed by morphological and molecular characterization, showing the causative agent to be a third-stage larva of Pseudoterranova decipiens (sensu stricto). Various infection routes are discussed.

The lack of anthelmintic products licensed for donkeys and the rising number of small donkey milk farms in the countries of Western Europe and Italy have led to an increased interest in the study of reliable and safe plant-derived treatment alternatives. In this study, the aqueous extracts of Achillea millefolium L. (flowers), Artemisia absinthium L. (aerial parts), Centaurium erythraea Rafn. (flowers), Gentiana asclepiadea L. (rhizomes and roots), Inula helenium L. (rhizomes and roots) and Tanacetum vulgare L. (aerial parts), have been tested in vitro for their potential ovicidal and larvicidal activity against donkey nematodes. An egg-hatching assay (EHA) and larval development assay (LDA) were performed for the in vitro study, and median lethal concentration (LC-50) values for both EHA and LDA were calculated using probit analysis. All tested plant extracts showed strong anthelmintic activity against strongyle eggs and larvae at concentrations ranging between 125 and 1.95 mg/ml, except for C. erythraea, which exhibited very little or no effect at all at the tested concentrations. A strong ovicidal effect was observed in A. absinthium, with an LC-50 value of 0.486 mg/ml (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.21–1.09). Gentiana asclepiadea showed high efficacy against strongyle larvae, with an LC-50 value of 0.041 mg/ml (95% CI 0.01–0.16). The most significant (P < 0.01) anthelmintic activity was exhibited by I. helenium, with an LC-50 value of 0.041 mg/ml (95% CI 0.01–0.16) for EHA and 0.41 mg/ml (95% CI 0.27–0.62) for LDA. The results proved the anthelmintic efficacy of the tested plant extracts, highlighting the need for further research into plant bioactive molecules both in vitro and in vivo.

Bithynids snails are a widespread group of molluscs in European freshwater systems. However, not much information is available on trematode communities from molluscs of this family. Here, we investigate the trematode diversity of Bithynia tentaculata, based on molecular and morphological data. A total of 682 snails from the rivers Lippe and Rhine in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, and 121 B. tentaculata from Curonian Lagoon, Lithuania were screened for infections with digeneans. In total, B. tentaculata showed a trematode prevalence of 12.9% and 14%, respectively. The phylogenetic analyses based on 55 novel sequences for 36 isolates demonstrated a high diversity of digeneans. Analyses of the molecular and morphological data revealed a species-rich trematode fauna, comprising 20 species, belonging to ten families. Interestingly, the larval trematode community of B. tentaculata shows little overlap with the well-studied trematode fauna of lymnaeids and planorbids, and some of the detected species (Echinochasmus beleocephalus and E. coaxatus) constitute first records for B. tentaculata in Central Europe. Our study revealed an abundant, diverse and distinct trematode fauna in B. tentaculata, which highlights the need for further research on this so far understudied host–parasite system. Therefore, we might currently be underestimating the ecological roles of several parasite communities of non-pulmonate snail host families in European fresh waters.

In many tropical areas schistosomiasis is a major health problem causing hepatosplenic, intestinal or urogenital complaints. Hepatosplenic schistosomiasis mansoni is also characterized by blood coagulation abnormalities. Liver pathology plays a role in the development of haemostatic changes and the parasitic infection may directly affect coagulation. However, these contributing factors cannot be studied separately in hepatosplenic schistosomiasis infections. This pilot study provides insight in haemostatic changes in urinary schistosomiasis by studying coagulation parameters in schistosomiasis haematobium-infected Gabonese schoolchildren. Selection on urinary schistosomiasis patients without hepatosplenic complaints allows for the investigation of the direct effects of the parasite on haemostasis. Levels of von Willebrand Factor (VWF) antigen, active VWF and osteoprotegerin were elevated, indicating inflammation-mediated endothelial activation. In contrast to hepatosplenic schistosomiasis, thrombin–antithrombin complex and D-dimer levels were not affected. Despite its small sample size, this study clearly indicates that Schistosoma haematobium directly alters the activation status of the endothelium, without initiation of coagulation.

Toxocara canis (Werner, 1782) is a zoonotic nematode commonly parasitizing dogs worldwide with great public health importance as the aetiological agent of human toxocariasis. In this respect, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of six disinfectant products commonly used in kennels, veterinary clinics and as household cleaning products on the embryogenesis and viability of T. canis eggs. The composition of active ingredients in these commercial disinfectants was sodium hypochlorite (A); a mix of N-(3-aminopropyl)-N-dodecylpropan-1.3-diamine and didecyldimethylammonium chloride (B); sodium dichloroisocyanurate dehydrate (C); a mix of glutaraldehyde, quaternary ammonium compounds, benzyl-c12-18-alkyldimethyl and chlorides (D); a mix of 2-propanol, ethanol, benzalkonium chloride and glucoprotamin (E); a mix of pentapotassium bis (peroxymonosulphate) bis (sulphate), sodium C10-13-alkylbenzenesulphonate, malic acid, sulphamidic acid, sodium toluenesulphonate, dipotassium peroxodisulphate and dipentene (F). After dilution, the tested disinfectants had the maximal concentration recommended by the manufacturer in order to achieve a biocidal effect. Each product was tested on approximately 10,000 T. canis eggs, having five different contact times (5, 10, 15, 30, 60 min). Three replicates were tested for each diluted disinfectant and for each contact time. After the treatment, eggs were washed and incubated in distilled water at 27 °C for 2 weeks. None of the tested products had a significant inhibitory effect on the embryogenesis and viability of T. canis eggs, regardless of the contact time. Moreover, after 2 weeks, in all tested samples, eggs containing motile infective larvae were identified, showing that routinely used disinfectants do not eliminate risk of infection by T. canis.

Marine mammals are long-lived top predators with vagile lifestyles, which often inhabit remote environments. This is especially relevant in the oceanic waters around New Zealand and Australia where cetaceans and pinnipeds are considered as vulnerable and often endangered due to anthropogenic impacts on their habitat. Parasitism is ubiquitous in wildlife, and prevalence of parasitic infections as well as emerging diseases can be valuable bioindicators of the ecology and health of marine mammals. Collecting information about parasite diversity in marine mammals will provide a crucial baseline for assessing their impact on host and ecosystem ecology. New studies on marine mammals in New Zealand and Australian waters have recently added to our knowledge of parasite prevalence, life cycles and taxonomic relationships in the Australasian region, and justify a first host–parasite checklist encompassing all available data. The present checklist comprises 36 species of marine mammals, and 114 species of parasites (helminths, arthropods and protozoans). Mammal species occurring in New Zealand and Australian waters but not included in the checklist represent gaps in our knowledge. The checklist thus serves both as a guide for what information is lacking, as well as a practical resource for scientists working on the ecology and conservation of marine mammals.

Among the Brazilian marsupials, the species of the genus Didelphis are the most parasitized by helminths. This study aimed to describe the species composition and to analyse the helminth communities of the Atlantic Forest common opossum Didelphis aurita at infracommunity and component community levels using the Elements of Metacommunity Structure Analysis, considering peri-urban, sylvatic and rural environments in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Seventy-three specimens of D. aurita were captured during the study. Fourteen species of helminths were collected: nine of the phylum Nematoda (Trichuris minuta, Trichuris didelphis, Globocephalus marsupialis, Heterostrongylus heterostrongylus, Travassostrongylus orloffi, Viannaia hamata, Aspidodera raillieti, Cruzia tentaculata and Turgida turgida); four of the phylum Platyhelminthes (three species of Trematoda, Duboisiella proloba, Brachylaima advena and Rhopalias coronatus, and one species of the class Cestoda); and one species of the phylum Acanthocephala (Oligacanthorhynchus microcephalus). More than 95% of the animals were infected with parasites. The most abundant parasite species were V. hamata, T. turgida, C. tentaculata and T. orloffi. The nematodes T. turgida, C. tentaculata and A. raillieti were the most dominant species in the three environments. The analysis of the metacommunity structure indicated a structured pattern as a function of the environmental gradient, but only when all localities were considered together. At the infracommunity and component community levels, quasi-nested and nested structures with stochastic species loss were observed, respectively. The results indicate that the settlement of helminth species in the opossums can be attributed to the heterogeneity among individual hosts in relation to their exposure to parasites and to extrinsic factors, which vary among habitats, considering a regional scale. On a local scale, the characteristics of this host species may promote homogenization among individual hosts in terms of their exposure to the helminths. This study constitutes a new host record for the species G. marsupialis and T. didelphis and represents a pioneering investigation of the helminth metacommunity of a Neotropical marsupial.

Diagnosis of cystic echinococcosis (CE) is at present mainly based on imaging techniques. Serology has a complementary role, partly due to the small number of standardized and commercially available assays. Therefore we examined the clinical performance of the SERION ELISA classic Echinococcus IgG test. Using 10 U/ml as a cut-off point, and serum samples from 50 CE patients and 105 healthy controls, the sensitivity and specificity were 98.0% and 96.2%, respectively. If patients with other infectious diseases were used as negative controls, the specificity decreased to 76.9%, which causes poor positive predictive values. However, if results between 10 and 15 U/ml are classified as indecisive, the specificity of positive results (≥15 U/ml) increased to 92.5% without greatly affecting the sensitivity (92.0%). Using this approach in combination with imaging studies, the SERION ELISA classic Echinococcosis IgG test can be a useful aid in the diagnosis of CE.

Parasite distribution patterns in lotic catchments are driven by the combined influences of unidirectional water flow and the mobility of the most mobile host. However, the importance of such drivers in catchments dominated by lentic habitats are poorly understood. We examined parasite populations of Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus from a series of linear-connected lakes in northern Norway to assess the generality of lotic-derived catchment-scale parasite assemblage patterns. Our results demonstrated that the abundance of most parasite taxa increased from the upper to lower catchment. Allogenic taxa (piscivorous birds as final host) were present throughout the entire catchment, whereas their autogenic counterparts (charr as final hosts) demonstrated restricted distributions, thus supporting the theory that the mobility of the most mobile host determines taxa-specific parasite distribution patterns. Overall, catchment-wide parasite abundance and distribution patterns in this lentic-dominated system were in accordance with those reported for lotic systems. Additionally, our study highlighted that upper catchment regions may be inadequate reservoirs to facilitate recolonization of parasite communities in the event of downstream environmental perturbations.

A new species of Nippostrongylinae (Nematoda: Heligmonellidae), Stilestrongylus rolandoi n. sp., is described from specimens collected from the small intestine of the rodent Euryoryzomys russatus in the Atlantic Forest (Santo Amaro da Imperatriz, Santa Catarina state, southern Brazil). The genus Stilestrongylus includes 23 species, which parasitize rodents occurring in the Neotropical region. Stilestrongylus aureus (Durette-Desset & Sutton, 1985) from Argentina, S. azarai (Durette-Desset & Sutton, 1985) from Argentina, S. flavescens (Sutton & Durette-Desset, 1991) from Uruguay, S. franciscanus (Digiani & Durette-Desset, 2002) from Argentina, S. gracielae (Digiani & Durette-Desset, 2006) from Argentina, and S. oryzomysi (Sutton & Durette-Desset, 1991) from Argentina are closely related to Stilestrongylus rolandoi n. sp., all having caudal bursa patterns of types 1–4 in one of the lobes. Stilestrongylus rolandoi n. sp. is distinguished from the aforementioned species by its ray 6 being short in relation to rays 4 and 5, which are long and robust, and by having caudal bursa patterns of types 1–4 in both lobes. The new species has 27 ridges in the mid-body in males, and 24 in females, and has one of the highest ratios of spicule length to body length (21−33%) in this genus.

Echinococcosis, caused by the zoonotic cestodes Echinococcus granulosus (sensu lato) and Echinococcus multilocularis, is highly endemic in the Central Asian Republic of Kyrgyzstan, and is being identified increasingly as a public health problem, especially amongst pastoral communities. As domestic dogs are considered to be the main source of human infection, the identification of potential transmission pathways is of relevance when considering implementing an echinococcosis control scheme. The current report describes the results of an analytical study of canine Echinococcus coproantigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) prevalence in the Alay valley of southern Kyrgyzstan prior to the commencement of regular praziquantel dosing of dogs. A logistic regression model using a form of Bayes modal estimation was used to identify possible risk factors for coproantigen positivity, and the output was interpreted in a Bayesian context (posterior distributions of the coefficients of interest). The study found that sheepdogs had lower odds of coproantigen positivity, as did dogs in households with donkeys, where owners had knowledge of echinococcosis, and households which engaged in home slaughtering. Surprisingly, there was no evidence of an association between free roaming or previous praziquantel dosing and coproantigen positivity, as has been found in previous studies. Possible reasons for these findings are discussed in the context of the epidemiology of echinococcosis and potential intervention approaches.

Alveolar and cystic echinococcosis are highly endemic in the Kyrgyz Republic. This report documents the numbers of recorded cases of these two diseases that have been reported in the past 14 years. The number of cases of echinococcosis has increased from approximately 550 to 1044 cases in 2013. This is an increase in incidence from 11.3 to 18.3 cases per 100,000 annually. In 2000 no cases of alveolar echinococcosis (AE) were reported in the Kyrgyz Republic. During this period the disease has emerged, with 148 cases reported in 2013 (2.6 cases per 100,000). Osh Oblast is a highly endemic focus for AE, with 60 cases reported in 2013 (6.0 per 100,000). The Alay Valley in the south of Osh Oblast reported the majority of AE cases for this region. In this valley, in 2013, 42 cases of AE were reported, which is a local incidence of 58 per 100,000.

Human cystic echinococcosis (CE) is known to be endemic in the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), China; however, there is relatively little data from hospital records or community prevalence studies, and the situation regarding occurrence of human alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is unclear. Here we review the available reports about human echinococcosis in the seven prefectures of TAR. In addition, two pilot studies by mass screening using ultrasound (with serology) were undertaken (2006/7) in Dangxiong County of Lhasa Prefecture (north central TAR) and Dingqing County of Changdu Prefecture (eastern TAR). In Dangxiong County a prevalence of 9.9% (55/557) for human CE was obtained but no human AE cases were detected. By contrast, in Dingqing County (N= 232 persons screened), 11 CE cases (4.7%) and 12 AE cases (5.2%) (including one mixed CE and AE case) were diagnosed by ultrasound. Hospital records and published reports indicated that CE cases were recorded in all of seven prefectures in Tibet Autonomous Region, and AE cases in four prefectures. Incidence rates of human CE were estimated to range from 1.9 to 155 per 100,000 across the seven prefectures of TAR, with a regional incidence of 45.1 per 100,000. Incidence of AE was estimated to be between 0.6 and 2.8 cases per 100,000. Overall for TAR, human AE prevalence appeared relatively low; however, the pilot mass screening in Dingqing in eastern TAR indicated that human AE disease is a potential public health problem, possibly similar to that already well described in Tibetan communities bordering TAR in north-west Sichuan and south-west Qinghai provinces.

Echinococcus multilocularis is a cestode that causes human alveolar echinococcosis, a lethal zoonosis of public health concern in central Asia and western China. In the present study, one of 42 Eastern mole voles (Ellobius tancrei) caught in Sary Mogol (Alay valley, southern Kyrgyzstan) presented liver lesions with E. multilocularis from which the EmsB target was amplified. The Asian profile obtained was almost identical to one amplified from domestic dog faeces collected in a nearby village. This observation adds additional information to the potential role of E. tancrei in the transmission of E. multilocularis, and to the known distribution range of E. multilocularis (Asian strain) in central Asia.

Approximately 440 million people globally are afflicted by hookworm disease, one of the 17 WHO-recognized neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). The iron-deficiency anaemia attributed to this disease contributes to at least 3.2 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) according to the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The current WHO-recommended control strategies rely primarily on mass drug administration or preventive chemotherapy. However, evidence is starting to accumulate confirming that preventive chemotherapy alone will not be sufficient to reduce the reinfection rates of hookworm, especially in areas of heavy transmission. The global health and research community is currently building a consensus stressing the need for the advancement of research and innovation to bridge the gaps and identify new public health interventions for diseases such as hookworm and other NTDs. This paper presents the strategies used by the Sabin Vaccine Institute Product Development Partnership (Sabin PDP) in their ongoing endeavour for the development of a human hookworm vaccine. Recent updates and the current prospects for success of an effective human hookworm vaccine, as a new technology to be linked to or combined with drug interventions, are presented.

To shed light on the epidemiology of ascariasis in Ecuador and Zanzibar, 177 adult worms retrieved by chemo-expulsion from either people or pigs were collected, measured and subjected to polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Upon double digestion with RsaI and HaeIII, PCR-RFLP analysis revealed the presence of A. lumbricoides in people and A. suum in pigs in Ecuador. In contrast, while there are no pigs on Zanzibar, of the 56 worms obtained from people, one was genotyped as A. suum. No additional genetic variation was detected upon further PCR-RFLP analysis with several other restriction enzymes. Upon measurement, worm mass and length differed by location and by species, A. suum being lighter and longer. While there is no evidence to suggest zoonotic transmission in Ecuador, an enduring historical signature of previous zoonotic transmission remains on Zanzibar.

The following account is based on a review lecture given recently at the British Society of Parasitology. We point out that nematode parasites cause very widespread infections of humans, particularly in economically underdeveloped areas where sanitation and hygiene are not adequate. In the absence of adequate clean water and effective vaccines, control and prophylaxis relies on anthelmintic drugs. Widespread use of anthelmintics to control nematode parasites of animals has given rise to the development of resistance and so there is a concern that similar problems will occur in humans if mass drug administration is continued. Recent research on the cholinergic anthelmintic drugs has renewed enthusiasm for the further development of cholinergic anthelmintics. Here we illustrate the use of three parasite nematode models, Ascaris suum, Oesophagostomum dentatum and Brugia malayi, microfluidic techniques and the Xenopus oocyte expression system for testing and examining the effects of cholinergic anthelmintics. We also show how the combination of derquantel, the selective nematode cholinergic antagonist and abamectin produce increased inhibition of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the nematode body muscle. We are optimistic that new compounds and combinations of compounds can limit the effects of drug resistance, allowing anthelmintics to be continued to be used for effective treatment of human and animal helminth parasites.

A survey was conducted in 150 households owning 1756 pigs in the rural areas of Mayo-Danay division in the north of Cameroon. A questionnaire survey was carried out to collect information on the pig-farming system and to identify potential risk factors for Taenia solium cysticercosis infection in pigs. Blood samples were collected from 398 pigs with the aim of estimating the seroprevalence of T. solium cysticercosis. The results showed that 90.7% of the pigs are free roaming during the dry season and that 42.7% of households keeping pigs in the rural areas have no latrine facility. Seventy-six per cent of the interviewed pig owners confirmed that members of the household used open-field defecation. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for antigen and antibody detection showed an apparent prevalence of cysticercosis of 24.6% and 32.2%, respectively. A Bayesian approach, using the conditional dependence between the two diagnostic tests, indicated that the true seroprevalence of cysticercosis in Mayo-Danay was 26.6%. Binary logistic regression analysis indicated that a lack of knowledge of the taeniasis–cysticercosis complex and the absence of a pig pen in the household were associated with pig cysticercosis.