Nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV) was isolated from infected Hyposidra talaca (Walker) caterpillars. This defoliating pest was sampled from the Terai and Dooars tea plantations along the foothills of Darjeeling, India. Phase contrast and transmission electron microscopy revealed polyhedral occlusion bodies (OBs) typical of NPVs. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis showed that the molecular weight of the major protein of the OBs is 32.17 kDa. Dose–mortality bioassays conducted for OBs on the second instar caterpillars of H. talaca resulted in a median lethal concentration (LC50) of 2.8 × 103 OBs/ml. The median lethal time (LT50) was 5.45 days for 1 × 104 OBs/ml, 4.15 days for 1 × 105 OBs/ml and 4.05 days for 1 × 106 OBs/ml concentrations. These results indicate the potential of using this NPV as a microbial pesticide against H. talaca.

Research on the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) – rearing simplification, insect microflora and transgenic strain evaluation – yielded several findings: (1) incorporation of antibiotics in the adult diet is evidently not needed; (2) colonization appears to be easier when wild adults are collected from the field instead of using mature larvae emerging from field-collected infested olives; (3) a combination of standard solid starter with liquid (no cellulose powder) finisher impregnated in synthetic sponge larval diets was more promising compared with all-liquid diets; (4) molecular analysis revealed extensive differences in bacterial species associated with the fly between laboratory flies and strains from different olive varieties, as well as between strains originating from different seasons of the year; (5) when an enhanced green fluorescent protein transgenic strain was compared with the standard long mass-reared strain, it proved significantly inferior according to all quality control tests applied, i.e. egg production, egg hatch, larval-stage duration, pupal recovery, pupal weight, adult emergence and adult survival. The aforementioned findings are discussed in the context of mass rearing and quality requirements for more successful implementation of the sterile insect technique against this pest.

Infectivity of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae against workers of the arboreal termite Odontotermes sp. was assayed under laboratory conditions. Test isolates were collected from different sources, including soil from varied locations and insect hosts from the orders Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera. All the 23 isolates tested and the standard (ARSEF 7413) were pathogenic to the workers of Odontotermes sp. at a concentration of 107 conidia/ml, with mean mortality ranging from 57.5 to 100%. Two of the isolates (Ma2, Ma13) and the standard caused 100% mortality in the termite species. A detailed bioassay was subsequently conducted with the five most promising isolates, namely Ma1, Ma2, Ma13, Ma16 and Ma17, at concentrations ranging from 104 to 107 conidia/ml. The lethal concentrations (LC50) of these isolates ranged from 0.01 to 0.46 × 105 conidia/ml. The average survival time (AST) for the termites treated with the most virulent isolate (Ma2) varied from 4.2 to 5.7 days across the four spore loads, while AST with the standard isolate ranged from 5.3 to 6.3 days. Two of the isolates, Ma2 and Ma13, were found to be significantly more pathogenic to Odontotermes sp. workers than all the others, including the standard.

In order to study factors affecting phytoseiid mite occurrence in uncultivated areas, we sampled phytoseiid mites (densities, diversity and age structure) on several plants located in 4 uncultivated areas surrounding European vineyards over 3 years to determine how plants, and mainly their leaf structure, affect mite communities. The plant composition of these areas greatly influenced phytoseiids density and diversity. The relationships between leaf structure (trichomes, pollen densities, number and structure of domatia, leaf surface) and Kampimodromus aberrans (Oudemans) densities were also studied. The frequency of occurrence and the abundance of K. aberrans per cm2 were correlated to high trichome densities. A complex phylloplane (many hairs and shelters or domatia) can benefit K. aberrans more than other phytoseiid mite species. The number and the rating of domatia were important for the development of K. aberrans; high proportions of immatures were observed only on plants with these structures. Pollen densities were significantly correlated to trichome densities; domatia structure had only a somewhat lesser effect. Furthermore, we demonstrated that K. aberrans does take up plant fluids. Our study shows how dense trichome and pollen levels can affect the development of K. aberrans populations and adds perspective to the influence of domatia on these important predaceous mite populations.

Apis mellifera jemenitica, the only indigenous honey bee race of Saudi Arabia, is well adapted to the harsh local environmental conditions. A large-scale field survey was conducted to screen major Saudi Arabian beekeeping locations for infection by Paenibacillus larvae. Paenibacillus larvae is one of the major bacterial pathogens of honey bee broods and is the causative agent of American foulbrood disease. Larvae from samples suspected of infection were collected from different apiaries and homogenized in phosphate-buffered saline. Bacteria were isolated on MYPGP agar medium. Two bacterial isolates, ksuPL3 and ksuPL5 (16S rRNA GenBank accession numbers, KR780760 and KR780761, respectively), were subjected to molecular identification using P. larvae-specific primers. A BLAST sequence analysis revealed that the two isolates were P. larvae with more than 98% sequence identity. This detection of P. larvae in the indigenous honey bee is the first recorded incidence of this pathogen in Saudi Arabia. This study emphasizes the need for the relevant authorities to take immediate steps towards treating and limiting the spread of this disease throughout the country.

Field experiments were conducted for two seasons to assess the efficacy of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae in the control of termites in maize. Application of the fungus at planting was found to significantly reduce maize lodging and increase grain yield in both seasons. However, data from treatment application at tasselling were not consistent. Our results suggest that a granular formulation of M. anisopliae might be a useful option for the management of termites in the maize agroecosystem.

The tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze) industry is the backbone of the agroeconomy of the North Bengal region located at the foothills of the Himalayas in North-East (NE) India. This region accounts for about 25% of the total tea production in India. The tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis theivora Waterhouse, is one of the most devastating sucking pests of tea in this region. Various kinds of synthetic insecticides are continuously sprayed to control this bug. The lynx spider Oxyopes javanus Thorell has been found to remain associated with tea plants and feed on H. theivora. The present study investigated the predation potential and efficacy of the O. javanus spider against one of its most common prey species, H. theivora. In the laboratory, with an increase in H. theivora density, the predation rate of both male and female O. javanus increased. Per capita predation rates exhibited by male and female O. javanus per day against adult H. theivora were 3.67 ± 1.52 and 11.67 ± 1.53 (mean ± standard deviation), respectively. At a reasonably small prey density, the prey consumption rate was highest, reaching up to 100%, indicating that the spider predator has the potential to eliminate smaller populations of the pest. The predation effectiveness calculated using Holling's disc equation was 6.08 and 356.58 for male and female O. javanus, respectively. The prey handling time was 0.138 day for male O. javanus and 0.012 day for female O. javanus. Female O. javanus exhibited about fivefold higher searching efficacy than male O. javanus. It appears that the conservation or augmentation of O. javanus in the tea ecosystem can provide effective biological management of the major tea pest, H. theivora, in sub-Himalayan foothills and plains of NE India.

The distribution of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus on Setaria sphacelata flowerheads was investigated. Adult tick counts in a paddock, heavily infested with ticks for experimental purposes, revealed an aggregated distribution by deviating significantly from the expected Poisson distribution, but producing a good fit to the expected negative binomial distribution. A higher proportion of the ticks were on old dry flowerheads than on young green ones. Tests carried out in the laboratory confirmed the marked preference for old flowerheads and the aggregated pattern of distribution. The tick counts in the field revealed no sexual aggregation, though the total number of females collected was significantly higher than that of the males.

The present study aimed to determine the selectivity of the pyrethroid lambdacyhalothrin on arthropod natural enemy populations in irrigated rice fields in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The study was conducted at three sites: districts of Cachoeira do Sul, Eldorado do Sul and Capivari do Sul during the crop years of 2007/2008 and 2008/2009. Each site consisted of two subareas divided into four plots. One of the subareas received a spray application of 150 ml/ha of lambdacyhalothrin CS 50, while the other subarea was untreated. Arthropods were collected at 2, 15, 30 and 45 days after the application of the insecticide to assess its impact on natural enemy populations. The results indicated consistent differences in natural enemy populations between the treated and untreated areas, especially within the first 2 weeks after the application of the insecticide. Principal components analysis together with χ2 analysis revealed differences in the populations of Tetragnathidae, Anyphaenidae, Araneidae, Coccinellidae, Phytoseiidae and Coenagrionidae between the treated and untreated areas. This study indicated the existence of a great diversity of arthropod natural enemies in irrigated rice fields in a subtropical environment similar to that reported previously from rice fields in tropical environments. In addition, lambdacyhalothrin was shown to be a rapid acting insecticide, with a significant initial decrease in natural enemy populations followed by a rapid recovery beginning at 2 weeks after the application of the insecticide. Especially disconcerting is the severe impact of the insecticide on Phytoseiidae and Araneidae, which are considered key natural enemies for the management of rice pests in southern Brazil.

The biology, insect density-yield loss relationships, genotype reactions, and consumption and utilisation of food by the legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata (Fabricius) on pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) and Adzuki bean (Phaseolus angularis) were studied. Post-embryonic development was completed in 20.2 to 22.6 days. Grain yield in plants infested with 2 and 4 larvae was the same as that in uninfested controls, while plants infested with 8 and 16 larvae suffered between 50–68% grain yield loss in pigeonpea and 61–71% in Adzuki bean. Food consumption by third instars was highest on ICPL 90011. This genotype had the lowest approximate digestibility (AD) and efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI). The significance of these results in relation to economic damage thresholds is discussed.

Pearl millet, sorghum, maize and cowpea are important food crops in dryland areas of the Sahel. Losses caused by insects on these low input crops are variable but generally substantial. Basic information on the role of natural enemies is scant. An example of a recent applied research which is mainly directed towards the management of millet earhead caterpillar, Raghuva albipunctella Joannis is narrated. Results of a study initiated on conservation and encouragement of Bracon hebetor Say against Raghuva in a traditional village environment are highlighted. These results demonstrate that such an approach of biological control has a place in even the temporary, already fragile agro-ecosystems and in habitats of low durational stability in the drought-hit Sahel.

Extensive additional base field data have been assembled since 1981 on the natural enemies of other pests, including Heliothis armigera (Hb.) in Senegal. Based on these results, the scope of conservation and encouragement on natural enemies in the Sahelian zone is discussed. Future research, development and training needs, for both short and more importantly long-term planning in this important aspect of pest management are briefly mentioned.

The objective of this study was to determine whether a generic diet could be developed for three species of Anastrepha: A. ludens, A. obliqua and A.serpentina. Laboratory and mass-rearing tests to assess the suitability of the A. ludens (Loew) (ALU) diet, normally used for rearing A. ludens, indicated that it was also suitable for rearing A. obliqua (Macquart) and A. serpentina (Wiedemann). Therefore, this diet appeared to be a suitable generic diet for the three species based on quality control parameters. In comparison with those observed when rearing larvae on the commonly used A. obliqua diet, the number of A. obliqua larvae recovered per g diet increased from 4.2 to 5.1, larval weight increased from 17 to 18.2 mg, pupation after 24 h from 89.3 to 96.9%, adult emergence from 91.5 to 93.7% and flight ability (% of fliers) from 86.1 to 90.4% when reared on the ALU diet. Usually, A. serpentina larvae are reared on the A. serpentina diet, but when reared on the ALU diet, larval recovery increased from 61.8 to 69.8%, number of larvae recovered per g diet from 3.7 to 4.4, larval weight from 21.7 to 23.8 mg and flight ability from 64.6 to 70.2%. These results show that the nutritional requirements of the three Anastrepha species are similar. The use of a generic diet for rearing the three species requires only one line to prepare the diet, reducing time and labour costs.

The biological activity against Boophilus microplus of extracts of the berries, bark, leaves and twigs of Pimenta dioica was examined and compared with that of eugenol, methyl eugenol and four commercial acaricides, namely dimethoate, farnesyl methyl ether, carbaryl and diazinon. The berry essential oil was more effective at inhibiting oviposition and causing mortality of the ticks than all the extracts, the commercial acaricides and methyl eugenol. At a dose of 1.0 mg/g it was 33, 12, 6, and 3 times as effective in inhibiting oviposition as the non-polar extracts of the leaves, bark, twigs and berries, respectively. The potency of the berry essential oil is attributable to eugenol, a phenyl propanoid derivative, which accounts for over 65% of the oil content.

Soil pests are defined as those in which the damaging stage of the life cycle lives in the soil. In Africa the most important soil insect pests are termites, followed by the larvae of various beetles (particularly scarabs), and by millipedes which are included here as they damage plants in a similar way to some insects.

The most important cereals in Africa are maize, sorghum and millet, with wheat and rice increasing in importance. Attack by soil pests usually begins on the root system and yield losses result from plant mortality, lowered translocation of water and nutrients, increased susceptibility to pathogens, or lodging with subsequent damage to grain on the ground from various vertebrates, invertebrates and saprophytes.

Data have often been presented as ‘percentage of plants damaged’ or ‘infested’ and bear little relationship to yield loss, as this depends on the severity and timing of attack. A succession of soil pests can attack the plants from seedling to maturity. Early season attacks can result in compensatory growth by remaining plants leading to overestimation of yield loss by simple estimates of plants damaged. Direct estimation of yield loss is time-consuming and few such studies have been made. However, methods are presented here for termites and maize which could be adapted for other pests and crops. Indirect estimates using pesticides are more common and, in general, indicate that an integrated pest management approach to soil pests is required.

The striped mealybug, Ferrista virgata (Ckll.) has become a very serious pest of guava in India. Since the insecticides are ineffective, an attempt was made to suppress F. virgata with an introduced coccinellid, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant C. montrouzieri and other local natural enemies especially Aenasius advena Comp. and Scymnus coccivora Ayyar effectively controlled F. virgata in guava orchards.

The stemborers Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), are the most important pests of maize and grain sorghum in South Africa. Parasitoids, pathogens and predators curtailed populations of B. fusca and C. partellus on the crops but their activity was not enough to reduce pest populations to below-economic-damage levels. They also could not prevent the dispersal and subsequent widespread distribution of C. partellus after its introduction into South Africa. Nine parasitoids and hyperparasitoids have been recorded attacking both borer species. These parasitoids are probably more habitat-specific with regard to foraging for hosts than they are host-specific, as they appear to have moved from their indigenous hosts to use C. partellus as a new alternative host. Between 1977 and 1993 three braconids, one eulophid, three ichneumonids, two trichogrammatids and four tachinids were introduced into South Africa from 11 countries for biological control of stemborers. Recoveries of parasitoids were made only short periods after releases and in the vicinity of the release sites. Cold and dry winters, with night temperatures often falling to below freezing, prevail in the Highveld Region which is the major summer-grain-producing area of South Africa. These conditions, and the fact that borers enter diapause in the dry stalks for 7 months in winter, when the crops or other alternative host plants such as grasses do not grow, hamper the establishment of exotic natural enemies in the Highveld Region.

In this study, laboratory and field cage experiments were conducted to assess the performance of sterile mass-reared Mexican fruit fly Anastrepha ludens (Loew) irradiated at various doses. In small laboratory cages, the radiation dose was found to have no effect on adult emergence, flying adults or survival at 25 days. In field cages, non-irradiated males and males irradiated at 20 and 40 Gy were found to exhibit greater mating propensity than males irradiated at 60 and 80 Gy. In large field cages in competition with wild males, cohorts of flies (male and female) irradiated at the low dose of 40 Gy and wild non-irradiated flies mated randomly, while flies irradiated at the high standard dose of 80 Gy mated assortatively. Irrespective of the radiation dose, laboratory flies courted and attempted copulation significantly earlier in the day than wild flies. In large field cages, cohorts of flies irradiated at low doses, e.g. 40 Gy, tended to induce greater sterility into a cohort of wild flies than those irradiated at 80 Gy, but the difference was not significant. Our results suggest that lowering the radiation dose currently applied to mass-reared flies in the Mexican fruit fly eradication campaign would substantially improve male mating performance. This could result in greater sterility induction without posing a risk in areas where target pest populations naturally prevail and are under suppression during the early stages of eradication programmes.

The species diversity of tephritid fruit flies in major mango-growing regions in Uganda was monitored over a 2-year period (2010–2012) using fruit bait and lure traps. A total of 368,332 specimens belonging to 10 species in four genera (Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Trirhithrum and Dacus) were collected. Of these, 98.9% belonged to Bactrocera invadens, while the second and third most common species were Dacus bivittatus (0.4%) and Ceratitis anonae (0.3%), respectively. Significant differences in the evenness and diversity of fruit fly species were noted across the regions. Fruit fly community structure was significantly different across the three regions. The Lake Victoria Crescent and Mbale Farmlands harboured significantly more D. ciliatus, T. coffeae, D. bivittatus and B. cucurbitae in contrast to the Northern Moist Farmlands and the Western Medium High Farmlands. Ceratitis rosa contributed the highest difference in regional structure, followed by C. fasciventris and C. cosyra. Rank abundance curves depicted a geometric series distribution of the species composition in the three regions, confirming a scenario of competitive displacement of native fruit fly species by B. invadens. A comprehensive and sustainable response strategy to B. invadens and other fruit flies needs to be urgently devised to protect the horticulture industry in Uganda.

Computer programming is ideal for the identification of ticks. This is due to the ability of computers to make rapid, repeated and complete searches of a large database of features in answer to a series of questions which lead to a single species. The program can allow the search to start in any order and to avoid difficult questions. It enables illustrations to be displayed when a question is asked. In contrast, classical dichotomous keys need to be used in a fixed sequence in which it is difficult to avoid questions, and often use vaguely defined characters and obscure language. To program an electronic key a character state matrix is constructed of rows of precisely defined characters with the two or more states in which they may occur and of columns in which the species are placed. Each state is recorded as being positive or negative. This corresponds to the binary system needed for computing and this need enforces a discipline on the identification method that has to define in illustrations and precise standardized language the characters and their states. These concepts are illustrated by the development of ‘Multikey’ program for the identification of ticks of domestic animals in Africa. The advantages of Multikey are its ease of use, its compatibility with comprehensive tick guides on compact discs and the ability to expand it with more information. The disadvantages are the requirement for a computer next to the laboratory microscope and the difficulty in browsing the contents. These disadvantages can be overcome by a printed version and there is use for both the printed and the electronic versions of such guides.

The salivary glands of the cowpea pod-sucking bugs Anoplocnemis curvipes (Fabricius), Clavigralla tomentosicollis Stål, Clavigralla shadabi Dolling, Riptortus dentipes (Fabricius) and Mirperus jaculus (Thunberg) are described and illustrated. Extracts of the glands were assayed for the presence of proteinases, α-amylase, β-amylase and amyloglucosidase. The salivary glands consist of four-lobed principal glands and a tubular accessory gland, and they differ in shape and size among the different species except for the median lobe, which is more or less spherical. The sickle-shaped nature of the posterior lobe reported before for Riptortus linearis (Linnaeus) was also observed in R. dentipes, suggestive of a probable generic characteristic. Anoplocnemis curvipes has the biggest salivary gland, and it is followed by R. dentipes, M. jaculus, C. tomentosicollis and C. shadabi in descending order. Assays of the gland extracts revealed that the four digestive enzymes tested are present in the five coreoid species. Proteinases were preponderant (1.4–94.9 μg/ml), while amylases were detected in traces [(0.5–11.0) × 10− 3 μg/ml]. Proteinases may be largely responsible for the feeding damage caused by the coreoid species and their concentration in the glands of the different species correlates well with their known capacity to inflict pod damage and yield reduction in cowpea. Fourth instar nymphs of the different species also had higher concentrations of the digestive enzymes compared with their respective adults; and this correlates with the known ability of the nymphs to cause greater pod damage and yield reduction than adults.