This paper describes the results of extensive rearing of shootfly species of the genera Atherigona and Acritochaeta from cultivated and wild Gramineae in Andhra Pradesh, India. Nineteen fly species were recorded from 41 graminaceous species including cultivated sorghum. Atherigona soccata, an important pest of sorghums in the Old World tropics, was reared from 22 host plants. Only cultivated and wild species of sorghum were important as hosts of this pest species. It was observed that alternative host Gramineae were of minor importance in the ‘carryover’ of Atherigona soccata through the off season, but the irrigated sorghum grown for fodder could be an important source of flies.

In general, shootflies of a particular species usually favored one graminaceous host above others. The numerically dominant fly reared from wild Gramineae was Atherigona falcata, which was recorded on 17 hosts, including sorghum. Other common species in Gramineae were Atherigona pulla, Atherigona oryzae, Atherigona punctata and Atherigona atripalpis, all of which were also reared in very low numbers from sorghum. Five new species of Atherigona were reared; three of these will be described shortly.

Information on termite assemblage in a young eucalypt plantation in Kerala was generated by running a single line transect and monthly sampling for 1 year. Through the transect sampling, 11 species were recorded under two families and four subfamilies. The subfamily Macrotermitinae dominated with eight species while the other three subfamilies were represented by a single species each. A temporal pattern of abundance was observed for the different active foraging species of termites in the monthly sampling. During April–November, a single species, Odontotermes obesus (Rambur), was the most abundant. During December–January, Microcerotermes fletcheri Holmgren & Holmgren was dominant, while Odontotermes feae (Wasmann) dominated during February and March. Rainfall was found to have a negative influence on the diversity of the active/foraging species of termites. Among the 14 species of termites collected, only four were found attacking eucalypt seedlings. Of the total termite samples collected, 40% belonged to the single species O. obesus, which was the major pest species representing 12 out of the 18 recorded incidences of termites feeding on roots of eucalypt seedlings. Among the species recorded, one was a new species and two were new records for Kerala State. The large number of non-pest species of termites indicates the beneficial role of these termites as efficient decomposers.

Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister is a potential biocontrol agent of Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae). This study was carried out to understand the effect of abiotic (temperature and moisture) and biotic factors (age and reproductive status) on the induction and termination of diapause in Z. bicolorata. We also evaluated the effect of diapause on longevity and fecundity of Z. bicolorata. In Z. bicolorata the induction of diapause occurred between the months of July and December. No diapause was observed in May and June, which coincided with the commencement of the monsoon rains. The percentage of diapause induction in Z. bicolorata was found to increase from one generation to another as well as with the age of adults. Diapause significantly increased the fecundity of females as compared to the fecundity in pre-diapause conditions. Soil moisture (80% RH) played an important role in providing the conditions for initiation and termination of diapause. Similarly, 18.4 and 12.5% of diapause adults resumed their activity in 6 and 5 days when exposed to temperatures of 40° and 45° C for 2 h every day, respectively. Exposure of adults to low temperatures, i.e. 5° and 10° C induced 94.3 and 92.5% diapause, respectively, with no adult mortality. Thus, our findings reveal suitable conditions for preventing and inducing diapause in Z. bicolorata, which is of great importance in the suppression of P. hysterophorus. We discuss the implications of these findings in the control of P. hysterophorus.

Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) is one of the most economically damaging diseases of rice in sub-Saharan Africa. It is found only in Africa and the surrounding islands, where it is transmitted by insect vectors such as Tricliispa sericea Guérin, Chaetocnema piala Chapius and Sesselia pusilla Gerst., (all Coleoptera) respectively within the subfamilies Hispinae, Halticinae and Galerucinae of the Chrysomelidae; Chnootriba (= Epilachna) similis Thunberg (Coleoptera: Coccinelidae); and Conocephahis longipennis de Haan (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae). These vectors are leaf-feeders with biting mouthparts and are abundantly present on rice and grasses in irrigated lowland fields. Transmission of RYMV is mechanical as a result of feeding damage. However, the dynamics of virus spread and the role of the vector is poorly understood. A better understanding of RYMV epidemiology requires information on the distribution, biology, host range, nature of damage, and management strategies of the vectors. It is hoped that this review will be a useful source of information in the further development of integrated pest/disease management (IPM)in rice.

The effects of pH, sunlight and rearing temperature on infectivity of nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpltNPV) were investigated against larvae of Spodoptera litura (Fabricius). The infectivity of virus increased with increased larval rearing temperature. The LT50 values were significantly reduced from 24 to 6 days when rearing temperature was increased from 20 to 35 °C. The pH of the substrate significantly affected the infectivity of the virus. The LT50 values increased to about fourfold when the pH of suspension was raised from 7 to 11. Infectivity of the virus was more adversely affected in alkaline than in acidic suspension. Sunlight also deleteriously affected infectivity of the virus. The LT50 values increased with the increase in the period of sunlight exposure. A complete viral inactivation occurred after 12 h of direct sunlight exposure.

The composition and preparation of an artificial diet for the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei is described. Ten generations were obtained without any significant change in fecundity. Development at 25°C on this diet was similar to previously reported work using coffee berries. One female reared on this diet lived for 380 days. This diet will permit investigations into the genetics of insecticide resistance, potential biopesticides and other research, requiring a convenient laboratory rearing system.

The combination of a trapping system of insecticide impregnated screens and biconical traps followed by the release of sterile males led to the complete control of Glossina palpalis gambiensis and Glossina tachinoides in the agro-pastoral zone of Sideradougou. This area, situated south of Bobo Dioulasso, Upper Volta, in the Guinea savannah, covers an area of approx. 3000 km2. Along more than 650 km of rivers, bordered by gallery forests and infested by riverine tsetse, 6500 impregnated screens were placed during 4 months of the dry season, followed by the release of sterile males in the rainy season. For release purposes, colonies of 150,000 producing females of G.p. gambiensis and 85,000 females of G. tachinoides were maintained in industrial colonies on artificial membranes. Reinvasion of the project area was prevented by two barriers consisting of biconical traps impregnated with synthetic pyrethroid in one and simple biconical capture traps in the other. The screens reduced the initial fly population by 94% and permitted the release of only 35 sterile males per km of river to attain the planned ratio of seven sterile males to one wild male. Regular surveys showed that, after 4 months of release of sterile males, the relic fly population was constantly decreasing and tending towards disappearance.

An economic evaluation based on the production costs of the sterile males together with the costs of field operations showed that this combination of two non-pollutant methods was competitive with other methods of tsetse control.

The growing recognition of problems associated with chemical pesticide use has led to increased attention on integrated pest management (IPM). This paper describes how Tunisian potato farmers have learned to manage an important field and postharvest insect pest, the potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller), and how interdisciplinary research on integrated pest management has contributed to this process. During the 1980s, new pest control technology and better farmer awareness led to changes in how farmers manage the potato tuber moth in their fields and stores. Farmers reduced insecticide treatments in potato fields and made more use of agronomic practices to avoid crop losses from the insect pest. New government regulations and agricultural extension efforts have caused farmers to discontinue use of environmentally harmful chemicals such as DDT. Research is continuing on biological insecticides that are not toxic to mammals and some farmer adoption of these products has occurred.

Neem oil (NO), and different formulations of neem oil in a solution of Tetrapleura tetraptera as emulsifier, including neem oil emulsifiable concentrate (NOEC), neem oil slurry emulsifiable concentrate (NOSEC) and 5% NOEC obtained from the seeds of the neem plant, were tested for their efficacy in the control of Maruca testulalis Geyer, under laboratory conditions using flowers of Ife Brown, cowpea variety.

The different concentrations of NOEC (5, 10 and 20%) exhibited a high degree of insecticidal activity on M. testulalis larvae. All the treated flowers were protected from larval damage 2 days after treatment as compared to the 100% damage recorded on untreated flowers and on the flowers treated with T. tetraptera solution alone.

The NOSEC and the 5% NOEC prepared using different volumes of the emulsifier also exhibited some insecticidal activity which decreased with a decrease in concentration. NO/NOEC were superior to NOSEC and the 5% NOEC prepared in different volumes of the emulsifier.

The influence of solitary versus group rearing on the development and survival of the three-striped ladybird beetle Brumoides suturalis (Fabricius) was studied using two aphid species, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) and Aphis gossypii Glover, as diet. Rearing pattern (solitary or group) had no significant influence on the success of rearing, but prey species did. While immature stages developed faster on A. pisum, the survival of early instars was higher on A. gossypii. Diet had no effect on pupal survival.

A nuclear polyhedrosis virus isolated from the Egyptian cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis, was found to infect termite castes of Kalotermes flavicollis. Laboratory studies indicated that no specific trend toward mortality responses among the different individuals of termites was noted. All test castes of termites, young, middle-sized, old and reproductive nymphs, and soldiers, were quite equal in their response to the virus infection, regardless of whether the virus concentration was high or low; a concentration of 6.4 × 108 polyhedra/ml, killed only 64% of the treated individuals, while the dosage of 6.4 × 107 polyhedra/ml produced over 90% mortality. Also, thesame trend of response was recorded with the survivors which received challenge doses of NPV suspension each 9 or 10 days. On the other hand, these results revealed that if the NPV is used to control termites, periodic applications would be more efficacious thanone treatment. Virus symptoms were recorded in all affected insects.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) has become an important health problem in Sri Lanka. Dickwella Divisional Secretariat Division (DSD) located in southern Sri Lanka has been identified as a highly endemic focus for CL. However, to date, the potential sandfly vectors of the Leishmania parasite causing CL have not been elucidated in this focus. This study aimed to determine the species composition and population dynamics of sandflies prevalent at three sampling stations representing different ecological conditions in two high-risk areas in Dickwella DSD, over a period of 27 consecutive weeks. Resting sandflies (i.e. indoor collection) were collected from the lavatories of human households using Castro aspirators at weekly intervals. In addition, cattle-baited traps were deployed at bi-weekly intervals to capture foraging sandflies (outdoor collection). Sergentomyia zeylanica Annandale was found to be the only sandfly species and hence was considered as the potential vector of the Leishmania parasite that causes CL. As a whole, 84 and 96% of the sampling occasions were positive for resting and foraging sandflies, respectively. Seventy-six per cent of the lavatories sampled contained sandflies regardless of the sampling station. Altogether, 34,481 sandflies were captured from lavatories, whereas 691 were collected in cattle-baited traps. The ecological habitat, which comprised dense vegetation and a stagnant water body, seemed to be highly productive for this sandfly species. However, dryness and heavy rains negatively affected its population density. The sex ratio of the sandflies was male-biased at 1:2 (females:males). The findings of this study suggested that the management strategies of S. zeylanica could be targeted on lavatories especially after moderate rains.

Six field pea Pisum sativum (L.), lines (Holetta Local-90, 305PS210687, 061K-2P-2/9/2, 061K-2P-14/7/1, JI-898 and 304WA1101937) were screened in a greenhouse for their resistance to the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) and compared to NEP874UK line (control). The total number of progeny and the average and maximum number of nymphs produced per female during a 24-h period were significantly lower in the six lines compared to the control. The intrinsic rate of increase was also significantly higher in the control than in the other lines (except Holetta Local-90). The aphid preferred to feed on the control than on the tested lines. Line 061K-2P2/9/2 was the most resistant genotype as its height and weight were less affected by aphid attack. Based on antibiosis, antixenosis and tolerance effects, lines 061K-2P2/9/2, JI-896 and 304WA1101937T performed better against A. pisum.

Hexane and acetone extracts of Trichilia connaroides leaves were evaluated for their biological activity against the Bihar hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua Walker, a destructive pest of crop, medicinal and ornamental plants. Fresh caster (Ricinus communis) leaves treated with a range of concentrations (1–10%) of the extracts were offered to 2nd instars for 120 h, followed by untreated leaves until pupation. Acetone extracts exerted better growth-regulatory properties than hexane extracts, shown by morphogenic malformation and adverse effects on the insect's larval duration, pupal duration, adult emergence and fecundity.

A participatory project was conducted with small-scale coffee growers from Quindío Department, Colombia. In 34 coffee lots in three municipalities, growers implemented an integrated management programme against the coffee berry borer (CBB) Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari, based on improved cultural harvesting and sanitation practices (to remove breeding habitats) and releases of exotic parasitoids. Growers released over 10 million Cephalonomia stephanoderis and 5 million Prorops nasuta (both Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) over 2 years. Populations of the CBB declined from a range of 7–14% infested berries (Quimbaya), 10–13% (Montenegro) and 15–48% (Buenavista) prior to the integrated pest management programme, to an average of 2.1 ± 0.2% infested berries in Químbaya, 3.5 ± 0.2% in Montenegro and 2.8 ± 2.1% in Buenavista, over the following 25 months. Damage to parchment coffee similarly declined during this period. Six months after the final release of parasitoids had been made, we found both parasitoid species established in all three municipalities. However, P. nasuta were recovered more frequently (in 71.4% of lots where they were previously released) compared with C. stephanoderis (recovered in 30.8% of release lots). Average parasitism rates remained low, i.e. 3.7% for P. nasuta and 2.9% for C. stephanoderis. This low rate was probably due to the frequent manual removal of mature berries containing developing parasitoid larvae. In addition, the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana was observed on average on 9.5% adult CBB in Montenegro, compared with mean infection rates of 4.3 and 4.4% in Quimbaya and Buenavista, respectively. Cultural harvesting and sanitation is an important component of CBB control, although it may limit the impact of the pest's parasitoids.

A laboratory study was carried out to assess the effects of seed treatment and fumigation of artificially infested cowpea with the volatile oil of air-dried leaves of Ageratum conyzoides L. (Asteraceae). The oil exerted acute toxicity on adults of the cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus F. upon fumigation. Maximal mortality of 95–97% was inflicted by 60 μl oil. Application of oil dressing on cowpea seed exhibited remarkable insecticidal activity-against the weevil. Significant oviposition deterrency and complete inhibition of emergence of adult insects (F1 offspring) from oil-treated beans were evident at doses of 2.5 μl to 10 μ1/9.5 g beans. No adverse physical effects on the beans were noticed at these doses. The major isolate of the essential oil, precocene I, was four times as active as the oil.

The spatial distribution and abundance of galls of Phytolyma lata were investigated. There was significant correlation between gall counts and the proportion of young leaves. It is suggested that the preference for young leaves not only ensures that good quality food is available but also that the insect is able to complete development before leaf fall. The distribution was also found to be influenced by the surface of leaf, region of leaf and size of veins.

Although pesticides provide benefits in our battle to control pests that destroy more than a third of all food, the use of pesticides also results in significant costs to public health and the environment. As many as 500,000 humans are poisoned annually by pesticides in the world; the United States alone reports about 45,000 human pesticide poisonings.

Pesticides have also caused many detrimental effects on agroecosystems and natural ecosystems. These include: (i) reducing and sometimes eliminating beneficial natural enemies that keep pest populations at low densities; (ii) increasing or decreasing reproduction in various animal populations; (iii) altering decomposition rates of soil organic matter; (iv) developing insecticide resistance in pests, which results in increased pesticide use and additional crop losses; and (v) eliminating honey bee and other bee populations in certain regions thus reducing crop yields and quality. Pesticides also have had major impacts on fish, bird and mammal populations.

Hyposidra talaca (Walker) is a recent host range-expanded major insect pest of tea in Northeastern India. We studied the egg-laying pattern of H. talaca in tea plantations with an aim to take suitable measures to disrupt egg hatching and to manage the pest. Egg clutch distribution in different heights (0–8 m) of 49 shade trees of seven species was studied. Stems and foliage of a total of 400 tea plants growing close to the shade trees were also subjected to the survey. Female moths deposited eggs underneath the scales of shade tree bark, lichen cover and the root mantles of parasitic plants that are growing on all shade tree plants, except Melia azaderach L. The shade tree bark of M. azaderach and tea plants had no egg deposits. Overall, 1785 egg clutches, comprising 84–302 eggs/clutch (average 258 eggs), were located. An average of 45.77 ( ± 7.06 SD, range 0–183) egg clutches was found per tree. The mean number of egg clutches was high in Acacia lenticularis Buch.-Ham. (95.4 ± 24.78 SD, range 40–183), and was low in Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. (23 ± 6.42 SD, range 4–46). Overall, the number of egg clutches reduced with the height of shade trees. This study suggests that the oviposition of H. talaca is typical for an outbreak species and that the management of shade trees, including the choice of species, has an important role in controlling the pest in tea plantations.

Oils from the seeds of neem, Azadirachta indica A. Juss and from a brown pepper, Piper guineense Schum and Thonn afforded protection to cowpea seeds from Callosobruchus maculatus infestation beyond 3 months. Insecticida! efficacy was higher with Piper seed oil (PSO). At 24 hr after surface treating cowpea seeds with 2 and 3 ml/kg of PSO, bruchid mortality reached 100 %, but with neem seed oil (NSO), mortality was 65–100% at 3–5 days. Oviposition in control averaged 60.75 eggs, 49.5 eggs in NSO and 15.5 with PSO. Reproductive efficiency (RE) of PSO-treated females was nil, and very low (1.7 to 2%) with neem oil, but high in control confirming adverse ovicidal effects of both oils. Piper oil prevented emergence of F1 bruchids and neem oil prolonged their mean development period over the control. Neem oil reduced seed damage by 94.67%. Because Piper seeds are a condiment in some Nigerian dishes, and are also used therapeutically in many traditional diseases, there may be no toxicity. However, yield of PSO is much less than that of neem from an equal weight of seeds extracted with organic solvents.