Field trials were carried out in order to evaluate some of the factors affecting male response of the almond seed wasp, Eurytoma amygdali Enderlein, to traps baited with the alkadienes (Z,Z)-6,9-tricosadiene and (Z,Z)-6,9-pentacosadiene, the male attractant of this species. The trials were conducted in Latomia, Microthivae, Kanalia and Sykourion (Thessaly, Central Greece) during the 2004 growing season. In all regions, captures in traps baited with a 7:3 ratio of the above blend significantly and positively correlated with male emergence from infested almonds that had been placed in cages in the experimental fields. Traps baited with the 7:3 pheromone ratio were significantly more effective in capturing males than traps baited with the 1:1 ratio, supporting the hypothesis that (Z,Z)-6,9-tricosadiene is the main component of this attractant. Of four trap types tested, Rebel and Lasiotraps attracted significantly more males than Delta and Funnel traps. Height had no effect on trap efficiency; however, males were captured earlier in the day in traps placed 2.3 m above grown than in traps placed 1.3 m above grown. Most male activity was recorded between 10 and 12 h, but captures were continuously recorded during the entire monitoring interval from 6 to 17 h.

Field recordings of the calling song and of an amplitude modulated signal produced by males of Cicada barbara from North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula were analysed in order to assess the geographical acoustic variation and the potential usefulness of acoustic data in the discrimination of subspecies and populations. Sound recordings were digitized and the frequency and temporal properties of the calls of each cicada were analysed. In all regions studied, peak frequency, quartiles 25, 50 and 75% and syllable rate showed low coefficients of variation suggesting inherent static properties. All frequency variables were correlated with the latitude, decreasing from south to north. In addition, most acoustic variables of the calling song showed significant differences between regions, and PCA and DFA analyses supported a partitioning within this species between Iberian Peninsula+Ceuta and Morocco, corroborating mtDNA data on the same species. Therefore, the subspecific division of C. barbara into C. barbara barbara from Morocco and C. barbara lusitanica from Portugal, Spain and Ceuta finds support from the present acoustic analyses, a result which is also reinforced by molecular markers.

The larval survival and development times of Aedes caspius (Diptera: Culicidae) were examined in the laboratory. These life history traits were estimated using life tables constructed for two populations, one of which had been subjected to a long-term larvicide control program. Traits were evaluated for eight different population densities. The effects of population, larval stage and larval density were investigated using a general linear model. Density was positively correlated with larval survival but did not affect development time. The fourth instar and pupae had the lowest larval survival rates. First and fourth instar larvae had the longest development times. These traits were not significantly different between the two populations. The effect of larvicide control on these traits is discussed.

Programmes involving mosquito research and surveillance are normally focused on the study of aquatic larval stages, but sampling methods are varied and not systematized, which hinders the comparative analysis of ecological data. A standardized method for assessing the richness and abundance of mosquito larval populations of value for the analysis of mosquito diversity is presented. Based on the study of all the aquatic sites in a one hectare sample area with a proportional number of dips according to the size of the aquatic habitat, comparative data can be obtained on species richness and relative abundance of species found between pairs of sites or in the same area at different times. This technique provides information on the total mosquito fauna at each site, helps recognize species of medical importance and estimates the abundance of each species; parameters that are not estimated by the current entomological indexes used in surveillance programmes. The quality of the inventory is obtained by estimation of the efficiency effort. Procedures for calculating alpha, beta and gamma diversity are presented. The technique was validated in a natural and an urban zone at La Mancha, Veracruz, Mexico, over two years of sampling made during different climatic seasons.

A single choice test was performed to examine developmental strategies in the uniparental endoparasitoid Meteorus pulchricornis and its host, the cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera. The results support the dome-shaped model in which the fitness functions are ‘dome-shaped’ relative to size (and age) of host at parasitism. Older and, hence, larger host larvae were simply not better hosts for the developing parasitoids. Although parasitoid size (measured as cocoon weight and adult hind tibia length) was positively correlated with host instars at parasitism, parasitoids developing in larger hosts (L5 and L6) suffered much higher mortality than conspecifics developing in smaller hosts (L2–L4). Furthermore, egg-to-adult development time in M. pulchricornis was significantly longer in older host larvae (L4–L6) than in the younger. Performance of M. pulchricornis, as indicated by fitness-related traits, strongly suggests that the L3 host is the most suitable for survival, growth and development of the parasitoid, followed by both L2 and L4 hosts; whereas, L1, L5 and L6 are the least favourable hosts. The oviposition tendency of M. pulchricornis, represented by parasitism level, was not perfectly consistent with the performance of the offspring; L2–L4 hosts, although with the same parasitism level, had offspring parasitoids with differences in fitness-related performance. Larval development in Helicoverpa armigera was usually suspended, but occasionally advanced, in the final instar.

Lygus Hahn plant bugs (Hemiptera: Miridae) are serious pests of a wide variety of economically important crops in North America. European Peristenus digoneutis Loan and P. relictus Ruthe (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) are being considered for release in Canada as part of a classical biological control program for Lygus. The attractiveness of different host plants to European Peristenus has not been addressed, but may be an important consideration prior to parasitoid release. Lygus rugulipennis Poppius nymphs were collected in the Northern Temperate Atlantic (NTA) ecoregion on red clover (Trifolium pratense L.; Fabaceae) and chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.; Asteraceae), and in the Western European Broadleaf Forest (WEBF) ecoregion on red clover and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.; Fabaceae). Parasitism levels and parasitoid species were determined using a multiplex PCR assay for P. digoneutis, P. relictus, and P. pallipes Curtis. Mean parasitism levels in L. rugulipennis were 45–49% in the NTA ecoregion and 25–32% in the WEBF ecoregion. However, in neither ecoregion were parasitism levels and parasitoid species compositions significantly different in nymphs from different host plant species. Furthermore, multiparasitism was low despite the fact that P. digoneutis and P. relictus share the same host species.

Peach-potato aphids, Myzus persicae (Sulzer), collected in Scotland in the years 1995 and 2002–2004 were characterized using four microsatellite loci and three insecticide resistance mechanisms. From 868 samples, 14 multilocus genotypes were defined (designated clones A–N). Five of these (denoted A, B, H, M and N) carried modified acetylcholinesterase (MACE) resistance, the most recent resistance mechanism to have evolved in M. persicae. The current paper shows that the continued presence of MACE aphids is due to turnover, as clones A and B were replaced in field samples by clones H, M and N in later seasons. Thus, insecticide-resistant populations in Scotland can be attributed to multiple waves of rapid clone colonisations and not to the continued presence of stable resistant clones or mutation or sexual recombination in local populations. The MACE clones carried varying levels of the other insecticide resistance mechanisms, kdr and esterase. The presence of these mechanisms could alter the clones success in the field depending on insecticide spraying (positive selection) and resistance fitness costs (negative selection).

We studied the use of a supervised artificial neural network (ANN) model for semi-automated identification of 18 common European species of Thysanoptera from four genera: Aeolothrips Haliday (Aeolothripidae), Chirothrips Haliday, Dendrothrips Uzel, and Limothrips Haliday (all Thripidae). As input data, we entered 17 continuous morphometric and two qualitative two-state characters measured or determined on different parts of the thrips body (head, pronotum, forewing and ovipositor) and the sex. Our experimental data set included 498 thrips specimens. A relatively simple ANN architecture (multilayer perceptrons with a single hidden layer) enabled a 97% correct simultaneous identification of both males and females of all the 18 species in an independent test. This high reliability of classification is promising for a wider application of ANN in the practice of Thysanoptera identification.

The study of intraspecific variation with respect to host plant utilization in polyphagous insects is crucial for understanding evolutionary patterns of insect-plant interactions. Aphis gossypii (Glover) is a cosmopolitan and extremely polyphagous aphid species. If host plant species or families constitute selective regimes to these aphids, genetic differentiation and host associated adaptation may occur. In this study, we describe the genetic structure of A. gossypii collected in six localities in Tunisia on different vegetable crops, on citrus trees and on Hibiscus. The aim was to determine if the aphid populations are structured in relation to the host plants and if such differentiation is consistent among localities. The genetic variability of A. gossypii samples was examined at eight microsatellite loci. We identified only 11 multilocus genotypes among 559 individuals. Significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, linkage disequilibria and absence of recombinant genotypes, confirmed that A. gossypii reproduces by continuous apomictic parthenogenesis. Genetic differentiation between localities was not significant, whereas a strong differentiation was observed between host plant families (0.175<FST<0.691). The great majority of aphids exhibited one of three predominant multilocus genotypes that were repeatedly and respectively associated to the three plant families, Cucurbitaceae, Solanaceae and Rutaceae, demonstrating host specialization in A. gossypii. These specialized genotypes were simultaneously found with other clones on Hibiscus, suggesting that this perennial host could act as a refuge plant between two vegetable crop seasons.

We assess the genetic history and population structure of Cicada barbara in Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula, based on analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. The divergence between Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula populations was strongly corroborated by the molecular data, suggesting genetically isolated populations with a low level of gene flow. The Ceuta population from Spanish North Africa was more similar to the Iberian populations than the surrounding Moroccan populations, suggesting that the Strait of Gibraltar has not been acting as a strict barrier to dispersal while the Rif Mountains have. The Iberian Peninsula specimens showed a signature of demographic expansion before that which occurred in Morocco, but some of the assumptions related to the demographic parameters should be considered with caution due to the small genetic variation found. The high haplotype diversity found in Morocco implies higher demographic stability than in the Iberian Peninsula populations. These results do not, however, suggest a Moroccan origin for Iberian cicadas; but the most northwest region in Africa, such as Ceuta, might have acted as a southern refuge for Iberian cicadas during the most severe climatic conditions, from where they could expand north when climate improved. The separation of two subspecies within C. barbara (C. barbara lusitanica and C. barbara barbara) finds support with these results.

A central paradigm of life-history theory is the existence of resource mediated trade-offs among different traits that contribute to fitness, yet observations inconsistent with this tenet are not uncommon. We previously found a clonal population of the aphid Myzus persicae to exhibit positive genetic correlations among major components of fitness, resulting in strong heritable fitness differences on a common host. This raises the question of how this genetic variation is maintained. One hypothesis states that variation for resource acquisition on different hosts may override variation for allocation, predicting strong fitness differences within hosts as a rule, but changes in fitness hierarchies across hosts due to trade-offs. Therefore, we carried out a life-table experiment with 17 clones of M. persicae, reared on three unrelated host plants: radish, common lambsquarters and black nightshade. We estimated the broad-sense heritabilities of six life-history traits on each host, the genetic correlations among traits within hosts, and the genetic correlations among traits on different hosts (cross-environment genetic correlations). The three plants represented radically different environments with strong effects on performance of M. persicae, yet we detected little evidence for trade-offs. Fitness components were positively correlated within hosts but also between the two more benign hosts (radish and lambsquarters), as well as between those and another host tested earlier. The comparison with the most stressful host, nightshade, was hampered by low survival. Survival on nightshade also exhibited genetic variation but was unrelated to fitness on other hosts. Acknowledging that the number of environments was necessarily limited in a quantitative genetic experiment, we suggest that the rather consistent fitness hierarchies across very different plants provided little evidence to support the idea that the clonal variation for life-history traits and their covariance structure are maintained by strong genotype×environment interactions with respect to hosts. Alternative explanations are discussed.

Field experiments were conducted to investigate the mechanism underlying patterns of the rove beetle populations in apple and pear orchards (1998–2002) and winter wheat (2006–2007) in Hungary following treatment with broad-spectrum insecticide. The capacity of predatory staphylinid species to feed on cereal pests was measured, with six species tested in petri dishes, in the laboratory at room temperature. Almost 23% of the Hungarian and 13% of the European staphylinid fauna are represented in the investigated agro-ecosystems. In orchards, 5236 individuals, belonging to 253 species, were collected. The most widely occurring were Omalium caesum Gravenhorst, Drusilla canaliculata (F.), Dinaraea angustula (Gyllenhal), Palporus nitidulus (F.), Xantholinus. longiventris (Olivier), X. linearis (Olivier) and Aleochara bipustulata (L.). In winter wheat, 798 individuals and 20 species were collected, the most frequent were Staphylinus caesareus Cederh, Tachyporus hypnorum (F.), Philonthus cognatus (Stephens), Aloconota gregaria (Erichson), Tachyporus chrysomelinus (L.) and T. obtusus (L.). Species composition differed by crop (apple, pear and wheat), soil composition and surrounding habitat. Species diversity was also influenced by these parameters. In wheat, one acute change in species composition was observed with the decline of Tachyporus spp., which occurred equally across all farms. The consumption rate of prey by the dominant species occurring in wheat ecosystems was relatively high; however, we did not offer any fungal food to compare with insects' prey.

Morphological measurements and a mitochondrial molecular marker (COI) were used to identity specimens reported as Kampimodromus aberrans on hazelnut in the USA. Several species and populations of this genus were studied to assist with identification. Both data types showed that specimens from the USA differed from K. aberrans from other regions. USA specimens seem to belong to the same species as Kampimodromus specimens from France on hazelnut. These mites were morphologically similar to Kampimodromus coryli and K. corylosus, which according to the original descriptions, are distinguished by the presence or absence of a tooth on the movable digit of the chelicera, with K. coryli having one tooth and K. corylosus none. As chelicerae of Kampimodromus from hazelnut in the USA and France are toothless, they are assigned to the species K. corylosus. Studies showed that morphological characters traditionally used to identify Kampimodromus species, such as setal length, are of less value than other characters that are difficult to observe, such as the numbers of solenostomes and the presence of teeth on the movable digit of the chelicerae. Some synonyms are discussed.

Predation on parasitized hosts can significantly affect natural enemy communities, and such intraguild predation may indirectly affect control of herbivore populations. However, the methodological challenges for studying these often complex trophic interactions are formidable. Here, we evaluate a DNA-based approach to track parasitism and predation on parasitized hosts in model herbivore-parasitoid-predator systems. Using singleplex polymerase chain reaction (SP-PCR) to target mtDNA of the parasitoid only, and multiplex PCR (MP-PCR) to additionally target host DNA as an internal amplification control, we found that detection of DNA from the parasitoid, Lysiphlebus testaceipes, in its aphid host, Aphis fabae, was possible as early as 5 min. post parasitism. Up to 24 h post parasitism SP-PCR proved to be more sensitive than MP-PCR in amplifying parasitoid DNA. In the carabid beetles Demetrias atricapillus and Erigone sp. spiders, fed with aphids containing five-day-old parasitoids, parasitoid and aphid DNA were equally detectable in both predator groups. However, when hosts containing two-day-old parasitoids were fed to the predators, detection of parasitoid prey was possible only at 0 h (immediately after consumption) and up to 8 h post consumption in carabids and spiders, respectively. Over longer periods of time, post-feeding prey detection success was significantly higher in spiders than in carabid beetles. MP-PCR, in which parasitoid and aphid DNA were simultaneously amplified, proved to be less sensitive at amplifying prey DNA than SP-PCR. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that PCR-based parasitoid and prey detection offers an exciting approach to further our understanding of host-parasitoid-predator interactions.

Molecular species identification is becoming more wide-spread in diagnostics and ecological studies, particularly with regard to insects for which morphological identification is difficult or time-consuming. In this study, we describe the development and application of a single-step multiplex PCR for the identification of three mealybug species (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) associated with grapevine in South Africa: Planococcus ficus (vine mealybug), Planococcus citri (citrus mealybug) and Pseudococcus longispinus (longtailed mealybug). Mealybugs are pests on many commercial crops, including grapevine, in which they transmit viral diseases. Morphological identification of mealybug species is usually time-consuming, requires a high level of taxonomic expertise and usually only adult females can be identified. The single-step multiplex PCR developed here, based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO I) gene, is rapid, reliable, sensitive, accurate and simple. The entire identification protocol (including DNA extraction, PCR and electrophoresis) can be completed in approximately four hours. Successful DNA extraction from laboratory and unparasitized field-collected individuals stored in absolute ethanol was 97%. Specimens from which DNA could be extracted were always correctly identified (100% accuracy). The technique developed is simple enough to be implemented in any molecular laboratory. The principles described here can be extended to any organism for which rapid, reliable identification is needed.

Chironomids (Diptera) typically comprise the most abundant group of macroinvertebrates collected in water quality surveys. Species in the genus Cricotopus display a wide range of tolerance for manmade pollutants, making them excellent bioindicators. Unfortunately, the usefulness of Cricotopus is overshadowed by the difficulty of accurately identifying larvae using current morphological keys. Molecular approaches are now being used for identification and taxonomic resolution in many animal taxa. In this study, a sequence-based approach for the mitochondrial gene, cytochrome oxidase I (COI), was developed to facilitate identification of Cricotopus species collected from Baltimore area streams. Using unique COI sequence variations, we developed profiles for seven described Cricotopus sp., four described Orthocladius sp., one described Paratrichocladius sp. and one putative species of Cricotopus. In addition to providing an accurate method for identification of Cricotopus, this method will make a useful contribution to the development of keys for Nearctic Cricotopus.

Dry, oligotrophic ecosystems are highly threatened in Europe due to massive changes in land use and eutrophication. The conservation of these xeric habitats has received much attention, whereas the ecotones between xeric habitats and other habitat types are often disregarded. One species which mainly inhabits the transition zone between pine forests and adjacent xeric habitats is the heath grasshopper, Chorthippus vagans. This species is endangered in large parts of Europe. One of the largest populations in northern Germany is found on a degraded inland dune near Hanover. This population is threatened by dense growth of deciduous trees and litter accumulation. We analyzed changes in the distribution of this population after the implementation of conservation measures (thinning out the forest and removal of leaf litter). Moreover, we examined dispersal distances of the species in order to assess its colonization potential. We also studied the microhabitat preferences of C. vagans to assess key factors influencing its local distribution. Our data show a substantial growth in population size, which might be a consequence of the conservation measures. New patches on the dune were colonized, promoting dispersal between the subpopulations. We propose that restoration of forest-dune ecotones should be considered more often in landscape planning and conservation management.

In cotton-growing areas of Central Africa, timing of host crops and pest management practices in annual rainfed cropping systems result in a shifting mosaic of habitats that influence the dynamics and resistance of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) populations on spatial scales, both within and across seasons. From 2002 to 2006, regional and local resistance was monitored among cotton fields and among the major host plants of the bollworm. From 2002, pyrethroid resistance increased within and across cotton-growing seasons to reach a worrying situation at the end of the 2005 growing season. Cotton crops played a fundamental role in the increase in seasonal resistance, even if the intensive use of insecticides on local tomato crops strongly concentrated resistance alleles in residual populations throughout the off-season. Due to the relative stability of resistance in H. armigera populations despite a long off-season, we believe that after the dispersal of the moths southwards at the end of the growing season, reverse migration mainly accounts for the reconstitution of populations at the onset of the following growing season. In addition, local resistance monitoring in 2005 and 2006 showed that it was possible to control the increase in resistance by temporarily stopping the use of pyrethroids during the period of peak infestation of cotton by H. armigera. On the other hand, the similar resistance frequency of populations sampled from sprayed and unsprayed synchronous hosts confirmed the absence of reproductive isolation between adults. As a result, diversity in cropping systems should be encouraged by planting alternative host plants to provide a mosaic of habitats, which in return would provide insecticide-free refuges. The implications for insecticide resistance management in annual cropping systems are discussed.

We demonstrate the use of molecular techniques to detect specific prey consumed by the southern rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii). A quick and non-lethal method was used to collect rock lobster faecal material and a molecular protocol was employed to isolate prey DNA from faecal samples. The isolated DNA was amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with PCR primers designed to target specific prey items. Feeding experiments determined that DNA from black-lipped abalone (Haliotis rubra) and sea urchins (Centrostephanus rodgersii and Heliocidaris erythrogramma) can be detected in rock lobster faecal samples within seven hours and remains present for up to 60 h after ingestion.