Humans can obtain pre-formed long-chain PUFA from the diet and are also able to convert essential fatty acids (EFA) to longer-chain PUFA. The metabolic pathway responsible for EFA interconversion involves alternating desaturation and carbon chain elongation reactions, and carbon chain shortening by peroxisomal β-oxidation. Studies using stable isotope tracers or diets supplemented with EFA show that capacity for PUFA synthesis is limited in humans, such that DHA (22 : 6n-3) synthesis in men is negligible. PUFA synthesis is higher in women of reproductive age compared with men. However, the magnitude of the contribution of hepatic PUFA synthesis to whole-body PUFA status remains unclear. A number of extra-hepatic tissues have been shown to synthesise PUFA or to express genes for enzymes involved in this pathway. The precise function of extra-hepatic PUFA synthesis is largely unknown, although in T lymphocytes PUFA synthesis is involved in the regulation of cell activation and proliferation. Local PUFA synthesis may also be important for spermatogenesis and fertility. One possible role of extra-hepatic PUFA synthesis is that it may provide PUFA in a timely manner to facilitate specific cell functions. If so, this may suggest novel insights into the effect of dietary PUFA and/or polymorphisms in genes involved in PUFA synthesis on health and tissue function.

Cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36) is a membrane receptor expressed on a wide variety of human cells. CD36 polymorphisms are reportedly associated with oral fat perception, dietary intake and metabolic disorders. The present study examined associations of two CD36 polymorphisms (rs1761667 and rs1527483) and dietary fat intake, and metabolic phenotypes in a Japanese population. This cross-sectional study was conducted based on clinical information collected from health check-ups in Japan (n 495). Dietary nutrient intake was estimated from a validated short FFQ and adjusted for total energy intake using the residual method. Mean blood pressure was calculated from systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). Hypertension was defined as SBP ≥ 130 mmHg and/or DBP ≥ 85 mmHg, or use of antihypertensive drugs. Genotyping was performed using PCR with confronting two-pair primers method. Mean age was 63·4 (sd 9·9) years. Individuals with the AA genotype showed higher total fat and MUFA intake (standardised β = 0·110 and 0·087, P = 0·01 and 0·05, respectively) compared with the GG and GA genotypes. For metabolic phenotypes, the AA genotype of rs1761667 had a lower blood pressure compared with the GG genotype (standardised β = –0·123, P = 0·02). Our results suggested that the AA genotype of rs1761667 in the CD36 gene was associated with higher intake of total fat and MUFA and lower risk of hypertension in a Japanese population.

The present study was carried out to evaluate the effect of dietary supplemental vitamin D3 (VD3) on P absorption and utilisation as well as its related mechanisms in the small intestine of broilers. A total of 384 1-d-old Arbor Acres male broilers were assigned randomly into four treatments following a completely randomised design with a 2 (dietary non-phytate P (NPP) contents: 0·43 and 0·22 %)×2 (dietary VD3 supplemental levels: 0 and 87·5 μg/kg) factorial arrangement. The experiment lasted for 22 d. The results showed that P contents in serum from the hepatic portal vein and tibia ash of broilers were higher (P<0·05) for 0·43 % NPP than for 0·22 % NPP. The type IIb Na-dependent phosphate cotransporter (NaP-IIb) protein expressions in the duodenum and ileum were higher (P<0·05) also for 0·43 % NPP than 0·22 % NPP. Supplementation of VD3 enhanced (P<0·05) tibia P retention rate and type III Na-dependent phosphate cotransporter (PiT)-1 protein expression in the duodenum of all broilers. Moreover, VD3 supplementation decreased (P<0·002) mortality and increased (P<0·02) serum P content from the hepatic portal vein after 4 h of feeding, tibia ash content, tibia ash P content and protein expressions of NaP-IIb and PiT-1 in the jejunum of broilers fed diet with 0·22 % NPP. Thus, dietary supplemental VD3 promoted intestinal P absorption and bone P utilisation, and this effect might be associated with enhanced PiT-1 levels in the duodenum and PiT-1 and NaP-IIb levels in the jejunum respectively when dietary NPP is limiting.

This study aimed to evaluate the nutritional value of pasta enriched with legume or wheat gluten proteins and dried at varying temperature. A total of four isonitrogenous experimental diets were produced using gluten powder/wheat semolina (6/94, g/g) pasta and faba bean flour/wheat semolina (35/65, g/g) pasta dried at either 55°C (GLT and FLT, respectively) or 90°C (FVHT and GVHT, respectively). Experimental diets were fed to ten 1-month-old Wistar rats (body weight=176 (sem 15) g) for 21 d. Growth and nutritional, metabolic and inflammatory markers were measured and compared with an isonitrogenous casein diet (CD). The enrichment with faba bean increased the lysine, threonine and branched amino acids by 97, 23 and 10 %, respectively. Protein utilisation also increased by 75 % (P<0·01) in FLT in comparison to GLT diet, without any effect on the corrected faecal digestibility (P>0·05). Faba bean pasta diets' corrected protein digestibility and utilisation was only 3·5 and 9 %, respectively, lower than the CD. Growth rate, blood composition and muscle weights were not generally different with faba bean pasta diets compared with CD. Corrected protein digestibility was 3 % lower in GVHT than GLT, which may be associated with greater carboxymethyllysine. This study in growing rats clearly indicates improvement in growth performance of rats fed legume-enriched pasta diet compared with rats fed gluten–wheat pasta diet, regardless of pasta drying temperature. This means faba bean flour can be used to improve the protein quality and quantity of pasta.

This study investigated the effect of pre-exercise α-lactalbumin ingestion on subsequent endurance exercise performance, muscle pain and mood states. In a two-stage cross-over counterbalance design, eleven male endurance runners (age: 31 (se 2) years, height: 169·5 (se 4·4) cm, weight: 63·6 (se 5·1) kg, V̇O2max: 58·8 (se 6·3) ml/kg per min) consumed two solutions (carbohydrate+α-lactalbumin, CA; carbohydrate+whey protein isolate, CW) 2 h before a self-paced 21-km run. Creatine kinase, IL-6, muscle pain, pressure pain threshold (PPT) and mood states were assessed 2 h before exercise, immediately before exercise (Pre-ex0) and immediately after exercise (Post-ex0). No difference was found in 21-km running performance between two trials (CA v. CW: 115·85 (se 5·20) v. 118·85 (se 5·51) min, P=0·48). Compared with CW, CA led to higher PPT at Pre-ex0 (41·77 (se 2·27) v. 35·56 (se 2·10) N/cm2, P<0·01) and Post-ex0 (38·76 (se 3·23) v. 35·30 (se 3·55) N/cm2, P=0·047). Compared with CW, CA reduced the feeling of fatigue at Post-ex0 (P<0·01); CA also reduced salivary cortisol levels at Post-ex0 (0·72 (se 0·07) v. 0·83 (se 0·13) ng/ml, P<0·01). In conclusion, the ingestion of α-lactalbumin did not improve the 21-km time-trial performance. However, compared with the pre-exercise ingestion of whey protein, that of α-lactalbumin led to superior results during similar levels of endurance exercise: it elevated PPT and reduced the feeling of fatigue and the cortisol levels.

Studies have shown that the reduction in serum TAG concentrations with long-chain n-3 fatty acid supplementation is highly variable among individuals. The objectives of the present study were to compare the proportions of individuals whose TAG concentrations lowered after high-dose DHA and EPA, and to identify the predictors of response to both modalities. In a double-blind, controlled, crossover study, 154 men and women were randomised to three supplemented phases of 10 weeks each: (1) 2·7 g/d of DHA, (2) 2·7 g/d of EPA and (3) 3 g/d of maize oil, separated by 9-week washouts. As secondary analyses, the mean intra-individual variation in TAG was calculated using the standard deviation from the mean of four off-treatment samples. The response remained within the intra-individual variation (±0·25 mmol/l) in 47 and 57 % of participants after DHA and EPA, respectively. Although there was a greater proportion of participants with a reduction >0·25 mmol/l after DHA than after EPA (45 υ. 32 %; P < 0·001), the mean TAG reduction was comparable between groups (–0·59 (sem 0·04) υ. –0·57 (sem 0·05) mmol/l). Participants with a reduction >0·25 mmol/l after both DHA and EPA had higher non-HDL-cholesterol, TAG and insulin concentrations compared with other responders at baseline (all P < 0·05). In conclusion, supplementation with 2·7 g/d DHA or EPA had no meaningful effect on TAG concentrations in a large proportion of individuals with normal mean TAG concentrations at baseline. Although DHA lowered TAG in a greater proportion of individuals compared with EPA, the magnitude of TAG lowering among them was similar.

Reduced plasma vitamin D (VD) levels may contribute to excessive white adipose tissue, insulin resistance (IR) and dyslipidaemia. We evaluated the effect of chronic oral VD supplementation on adiposity and insulin secretion in monosodium glutamate (MSG)-treated rats. During their first 5 d of life, male neonate rats received subcutaneous injections of MSG (4 g/kg), while the control (CON) group received saline solution. After weaning, groups were randomly distributed into VD supplemented (12 µg/kg; three times/week) and non-supplemented (NS) rats, forming four experimental groups (n 15 rats/group): CON-NS, CON-VD, MSG-NS and MSG-VD. At 76 d of life, rats were submitted to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT; 2 g/kg), and at 86 d, obesity, IR and plasma metabolic parameters were evaluated. Pancreatic islets were isolated for glucose-induced insulin secretion (GIIS), cholinergic insulinotropic response and muscarinic 3 receptor (M3R), protein kinase C (PKC) and protein kinase A (PKA) expressions. Pancreas was submitted to histological analyses. VD supplementation decreased hyperinsulinaemia (86 %), hypertriacylglycerolaemia (50 %) and restored insulin sensibility (89 %) in MSG-VD rats, without modifying adiposity, OGTT or GIIS, compared with the MSG-NS group. The cholinergic action was reduced (57 %) in islets from MSG-VD rats, without any change in M3R, PKA or PKC expression. In conclusion, chronic oral VD supplementation of MSG-obese rats was able to prevent hyperinsulinaemia and IR, improving triacylglycerolaemia without modifying adiposity. A reduced cholinergic pancreatic effect, in response to VD, could be involved in the normalisation of plasma insulin levels, an event that appears to be independent of M3R and its downstream pathways.

Variations in feeding behaviour between animals result from individual variations in their metabolism as affected by diet composition. The study aimed to link the within-day dynamics of voluntary feed intake and those of blood metabolites and insulin in growing pigs having ad libitum access to feed and receiving diets differing in dietary fibre levels and aleurone supplementation. A total of forty pigs (body weight: 35 kg) had access to diets provided ad libitum, which differed by fibre content (13 or 18 % neutral-detergent fibre) and aleurone supplementation (0, 2 or 4 g/kg). Feeding behaviour was individually recorded for 1 week. The kinetic of plasma metabolites and insulin was followed for 1 h after a voluntary test meal. Dietary fibre level did not affect the daily feed intake but increased meal size and meal duration. Aleurone supplementation (4 g/kg) decreased the daily feed intake and number of meals. Dietary fibre level only decreased insulin concentration measured 15 min after meal beginning. Aleurone supplementation (4 g/kg) decreased glycaemia in the first hour after the meal and insulinaemia 15 min after the meal. Free access to feed led to high variability in pre-prandial metabolites and insulin concentrations, resulting in different test meal size irrespective of diet composition. Animals were then spread over different profiles combining feeding behaviour and fasted status to explain different profiles of regulation of feed intake. Plasma metabolites and insulin kinetics were affected by diet composition but also by animal characteristics. Individual variability should be considered when diet composition is used to modulate feeding behaviour.

Treatment of liver fibrosis is very limited as there is currently no effective anti-fibrotic therapy. Spirulina platensis (SP) is a blue-green alga that is widely supplemented in healthy foods. The objective of this study was to determine whether SP supplementation can prevent obesity-induced liver fibrosis in vivo. Male C57BL/6J mice were randomly assigned to a low-fat or a high-fat (HF)/high-sucrose/high-cholesterol diet or an HF diet supplemented with 2·5 % SP (w/w) (HF/SP) for 16 or 20 weeks. There were no significant differences in body weight, activity, energy expenditure, serum lipids or glucose tolerance between mice on HF and HF/SP diets. However, plasma alanine aminotransferase level was significantly reduced by SP at 16 weeks. Expression of fibrotic markers and trichrome stains showed no differences between HF and HF/SP. Splenocytes isolated from HF/SP fed mice had lower inflammatory gene expression and cytokine secretion compared with splenocytes from HF-fed mice. SP supplementation did not attenuate HF-induced liver fibrosis. However, the expression and secretion of inflammatory genes in splenocytes were significantly reduced by SP supplementation, demonstrating the anti-inflammatory effects of SP in vivo. Although SP did not show appreciable effect on the prevention of liver fibrosis in this mouse model, it may be beneficial for other inflammatory conditions.

Soldier operational performance is determined by their fitness, nutritional status, quality of rest/recovery, and remaining injury/illness free. Understanding large fluctuations in nutritional status during operations is critical to safeguarding health and well-being. There are limited data world-wide describing the effect of extreme climate change on nutrient profiles. This study investigated the effect of hot-dry deployments on vitamin D status (assessed from 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentration) of young, male, military volunteers. Two data sets are presented (pilot study, n 37; main study, n 98), examining serum 25(OH)D concentrations before and during 6-month summer operational deployments to Afghanistan (March to October/November). Body mass, percentage of body fat, dietary intake and serum 25(OH)D concentrations were measured. In addition, parathyroid hormone (PTH), adjusted Ca and albumin concentrations were measured in the main study to better understand 25(OH)D fluctuations. Body mass and fat mass (FM) losses were greater for early (pre- to mid-) deployment compared with late (mid- to post-) deployment (P<0·05). Dietary intake was well-maintained despite high rates of energy expenditure. A pronounced increase in 25(OH)D was observed between pre- (March) and mid-deployment (June) (pilot study: 51 (sd 20) v. 212 (sd 85) nmol/l, P<0·05; main study: 55 (sd 22) v. 167 (sd 71) nmol/l, P<0·05) and remained elevated post-deployment (October/November). In contrast, PTH was highest pre-deployment, decreasing thereafter (main study: 4·45 (sd 2·20) v. 3·79 (sd 1·50) pmol/l, P<0·05). The typical seasonal cycling of vitamin D appeared exaggerated in this active male population undertaking an arduous summer deployment. Further research is warranted, where such large seasonal vitamin D fluctuations may be detrimental to bone health in the longer-term.

The relationships between both dietary and empty body fatty acid composition and the morphometry, densitometry, geometry and biomechanical properties of the femur of growing pigs were analysed. A total of thirty-two pigs aged 115 d were divided into four groups (n 8 per group). The pigs were fed either a control diet (group C) or a diet supplemented with linseed oil (rich in α-linolenic acid (C18 : 3n-3), group L), fish oil (rich in EPA (C20 : 5n-3) and DHA (C22 : 6n-3), group F) and beef tallow (rich in SFA, group T). The diets differed in n-3 PUFA contents (0·63–18·52 g/kg) and n-6:n-3 PUFA ratios (0·91–14·51). At 165 d of age, the pigs were slaughtered and the fatty acids in the empty body were determined. Moreover, the left femur was dissected. The cortical wall thickness, cross-sectional area, cortical index, bone mineral content, bone mineral density, maximum elastic strength and maximum strength were lower (P<0·05) in the femurs of pigs from groups C and T than in those from groups F and L. Significant positive correlations were found between the densitometry, geometry and biomechanical properties of the femur and both dietary and empty body n-3 PUFA content, whereas significant negative correlations were observed between the same properties and both dietary and empty body n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio. The results of the present study suggest that in growing pigs α-linolenic acid has a similar positive effect on bone health to that of EPA and DHA.

Conversion of α-linolenic acid (ALA) into the longer chain n-3 PUFA has been suggested to be affected by the dietary intake of linoleic acid (LA), but the mechanism is not well known. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of a low-LA diet with and without oestrogen on the fatty acid conversion enzymes and transcription factors. Rats were fed a modified American Institute of Nutrition-93G diet with 0% n-3 PUFA or ALA, containing low or high amounts of LA for 12 weeks. At 8 weeks, the rats were injected with maize oil with or without 17β-oestradiol-3-benzoate (E) at constant intervals for the remaining 3 weeks. Both the low-LA diet and E significantly increased the hepatic expressions of PPAR-α, fatty acid desaturase (FADS) 2, elongase of very long chain fatty acids 2 (ELOVL2) and ELOVL5 but decreased sterol regulatory element binding protein 1. The low-LA diet, but not E, increased the hepatic expression of FADS1, and E increased the hepatic expression of oestrogen receptor-α and β. The low-LA diet and E had synergic effects on serum and liver levels of DHA and on the hepatic expression of PPAR-α. In conclusion, the low-LA diet and oestrogen increased the conversion of ALA into DHA by upregulating the elongases and desaturases of fatty acids through regulating the expression of transcription factors. The low-LA diet and E had a synergic effect on serum and liver levels of DHA through increasing the expression of PPAR-α.

Nanoemulsion formulation of vitamin D3 have been shown to have better bioavailability than the coarse emulsion preparation in vitro and in vivo animal studies. In the absence of randomised trial in humans, comparing the efficacy of nanotechnology-based miscellised vitamin D3 over conventional vitamin D3, we undertook this study. A total of 180 healthy adults were randomised to receive either micellised (DePura, group A) or conventional vitamin D3 (Calcirol, group B) at a monthly dose of 60 000 IU (1500μg) for 6 months. The outcome parameters were serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D), parathyroid hormone (PTH), Ca, phosphate, alkaline phosphatase and urinary Ca:creatinine ratio. A total of eighty-nine subjects in group A and seventy-seven in group B completed the trial. Subjects in both the groups had a significant increase in their serum 25(OH)D levels following supplementation (group A: 21·5 (sd 10·9) to 76·7 (sd 18·8) nmol/l (P<0·001); group B: 22·8 (sd 10·4) to 57·8 (sd 16·0) nmol/l (P<0·001)). Participants in micellised group had an additional increase of 20·2 (95 % CI 14·0, 26·4) nmol/l in serum 25(OH)D levels (P<0·001). The difference between the groups was 17·5 (95 % CI 11·8, 23·1) nmol/l, which remained statistically significant (P<0·001) even after adjustment for age and sex. Significant decline in mean serum PTH was observed in both the groups. No hypercalcaemia or hypercalciuria was noted. Although supplementation with both the preparations resulted in a significant rise in serum 25(OH)D levels, micellised vitamin D3 appeared to be more efficacious in achieving higher levels of serum 25(OH)D.

Phosphorus is present in diets as naturally occurring P from raw materials or added as an inorganic salt. However, little is known about postprandial kinetics of P absorption in cats. Here, we describe several studies quantifying postprandial kinetics following the ingestion of diets of varying composition. Briefly, cats were fed a meal consisting of 50 % of their metabolic energy requirement in a randomised crossover design. A pre-meal baseline blood sample was taken via cephalic catheter and repeated measurements taken regularly up to 6 h post-meal to assess the whole blood ionised Ca, plasma P and parathyroid hormone concentrations. A diet containing 4·8 g total P/4184 kJ (1000 kcal), 3·5 g P from sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4)/4184 kJ (1000 kcal) and Ca:P 0·6 caused a marked increase in plasma P from baseline to a peak of 1·976 (95% CI 1·724, 2·266) mmol/l (P <0·001), whereas a diet containing 3·38 g total P/4184 kJ (1000 kcal), no added inorganic P and Ca:P 1·55 resulted in a postprandial decrease in plasma P (P = 0·008). Subsequent data indicate that added inorganic P salts in the diet above 0·5 g P/4184 kJ (1000 kcal) cause an increase in plasma P in cats, while diets below this do not. The data presented here demonstrate that sources of added inorganic P salts cause a temporary postprandial increase in plasma P in a dose-dependent manner, prolonged in diets with Ca:P <1·0. Dietary P derived from natural food ingredients (e.g. meat or vegetable matter) does not appear to have any effect on postprandial plasma P.

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a potent mediator of inflammation that plays a crucial role in atherosclerosis. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of a dietary supplement containing mainly plant extracts on PAF actions and metabolism in healthy volunteers. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, 8 weeks’ duration study was performed. Healthy volunteers were randomly allocated into the supplement or the placebo group and fifty-eight of them completed the study. The supplement contained plant extracts (Aloe gel, grape juice, Polygonum cuspidatum) and vitamins. The activities of PAF metabolic enzymes: the two isoforms of acetyl-CoA:lyso-PAF acetyltransferase, cytidine 5’-diphospho-choline:1-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol cholinephosphotransferase (PAF-cholinephosphotransferase) and platelet-activating factor–acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH) in leucocytes and lipoprotein associated phospholipase-A2 in plasma were measured along with several markers of endothelial function. Platelet aggregation against PAF, ADP and thrombin receptor activating peptide was measured in human platelet-rich plasma by light transmission aggregometry. No difference was observed on soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, sP-selectin and IL-6 levels at the beginning or during the study period between the two groups. Concerning PAF metabolism enzymes’ activity, no difference was observed at baseline between the groups. PAF-AH activity was only increased in the supplement group at 4 and 8 weeks compared with baseline levels. In addition, supplement consumption led to lower platelet sensitivity against PAF and ADP compared with baseline levels. However, a trial effect was only observed when platelets were stimulated by PAF. In conclusion, supplementation with plant extracts and vitamins ameliorates platelet aggregation primarily against PAF and secondarily against ADP and affects PAF catabolism by enhancing PAF-acetylhydrolase activity in healthy subjects.

A more efficient utilisation of marine-derived sources of dietary n-3 long-chain PUFA (n-3 LC PUFA) in cultured Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) could be achieved by nutritional strategies that maximise endogenous n-3 LC PUFA synthesis. The objective of the present study was to quantify the extent of n-3 LC PUFA biosynthesis and the resultant effect on fillet nutritional quality in large fish. Four diets were manufactured, providing altered levels of dietary n-3 substrate, namely, 18 : 3n-3, and end products, namely, 20 : 5n-3 and 22 : 6n-3. After 283 d of feeding, fish grew in excess of 3000 g and no differences in growth performance or biometrical parameters were recorded. An analysis of fatty acid composition and in vivo metabolism revealed that endogenous production of n-3 LC PUFA in fish fed a diet containing no added fish oil resulted in fillet levels of n-3 LC PUFA comparable with fish fed a diet with added fish oil. However, this result was not consistent among all treatments. Another major finding of this study was the presence of abundant dietary n-3 substrate, with the addition of dietary n-3 end product (i.e. fish oil) served to increase final fillet levels of n-3 LC PUFA. Specifically, preferential β-oxidation of dietary C18n-3 PUFA resulted in conservation of n-3 LC PUFA from catabolism. Ultimately, this study highlights the potential for endogenous synthesis of n-3 LC PUFA to, partially, support a substantial reduction in the amount of dietary fish oil in diets for Atlantic salmon reared in seawater.

Previous studies have suggested that vegetarianism can result in a reduction of vitamin B12 circulating levels. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of a 3-month dietary intervention with a lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet (VD) on the levels of circulating vitamin B12 in a group of omnivores. We analysed fifty-four omnivorous subjects who followed a VD as a first dietary intervention within the CARDIVEG (Cardiovascular Prevention with Vegetarian Diet) study, a dietary intervention study. VD resulted in a significant reduction (P<0·001) of 51·2 % of vitamin B12 intake and in a significant reduction (P=0·005) of 6·2 % of the circulating levels of vitamin B12 (–24·5 pg/ml). Changes in vitamin B12 intake were significantly correlated with changes in circulating levels of vitamin B12 (R 0·61, P<0·001). Subgroup analyses showed that reduction in circulating vitamin B12 levels was more evident in participants who were younger, overweight, non-smokers and had hypercholesterolaemia. A logistic regression analysis showed that a reduction in vitamin B12 intake greater than the first quartile of the delta changes obtained in the study population (–28·5 %) conferred a significantly higher risk of experiencing a decrease in circulating vitamin B12 levels (OR 10·1; 95 % CI 1·3, 76·1). In conclusion, a 3-month VD period determined a significant reduction in circulating levels of vitamin B12, being significantly correlated with the reduction in vitamin B12 intake. Although a well-planned VD can provide adequate nutrition across all life stages, special care must be taken to ensure adequate vitamin B12 intake and to help prevent deficiency.

EPA and DHA are important components of cell membranes. Since humans have limited ability for EPA and DHA synthesis, these must be obtained from the diet, primarily from oily fish. Dietary EPA and DHA intakes are constrained by the size of fish stocks and by food choice. Seed oil from transgenic plants that synthesise EPA and DHA represents a potential alternative source of these fatty acids, but this has not been tested in humans. We hypothesised that incorporation of EPA and DHA into blood lipids from transgenic Camelina sativa seed oil (CSO) is equivalent to that from fish oil. Healthy men and women (18–30 years or 50–65 years) consumed 450 mg EPA + DHA from either CSO or commercial blended fish oil (BFO) in test meals in a double-blind, postprandial cross-over trial. There were no significant differences between test oils or sexes in EPA and DHA incorporation into plasma TAG, phosphatidylcholine or NEFA over 8 h. There were no significant differences between test oils, age groups or sexes in postprandial VLDL, LDL or HDL sizes or concentrations. There were no significant differences between test oils in postprandial plasma TNFα, IL 6 or 10, or soluble intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 concentrations in younger participants. These findings show that incorporation into blood lipids of EPA and DHA consumed as CSO was equivalent to BFO and that such transgenic plant oils are a suitable dietary source of EPA and DHA in humans.

Although previous studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of some components of whole grains on premenstrual syndrome (PMS), our literature review shows that no clinical trial has studied the effect of whole grain consumption on PMS so far. Therefore, the present study was designed to study the effect of diets rich in whole grains on PMS among nurses. This study is a parallel controlled clinical trial with a 3-month intervention period in which, after following two menstrual cycles among nurses, 100 nurses diagnosed with PMS were randomly divided into two groups of intervention and control, with fifty individuals in each. Those in the intervention group replaced at least four servings of refined grains in their daily diets with whole grains. To supply four servings, 120 g of bread made with whole flour was given to the intervention group on a daily basis. Those in the control group, however, continued their regular daily consumption of grains. The two groups were compared regarding PMS symptoms after adjusting the confounding variables. The repeated measurement test showed that the interaction between the time factor and the experimental group on the mean score of PMS symptoms was significant. That is, the intervention group showed a significant decrease in the general, mood, physical and behavioural symptoms of PMS compared with the controls (P<0·001, P=0·01, P<0·001 and P=0·003, respectively). Therefore, daily consumption of whole grains in place of refined grains can contribute to improvement in PMS symptoms. Further studies are needed to confirm our findings.

The associations between growth during early life and subsequent cognitive development and physical outcomes are not widely known in low-resource settings. We examined postnatal weight and height gain through early life and related these measurements to the nutritional status and intellectual development of the same children when they were between 7 and 9 years old. Mothers had enrolled in an randomised controlled trial to evaluate the effect of prenatal micronutrient supplementation on birth weight. Their children were born in 2004, their height and weight were measured at 6, 12, 18 and 24 months of age and were followed up between October 2012 and September 2013 (at ages 7–9 years, n 650). Height-for-age, weight-for-age and BMI-for-age were used to describe the nutritional status, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children fourth edition was used to measure the intellectual function. Multilevel linear and logistic modelling was used to estimate the association between early growth and subsequent growth and intellectual function. After adjustment, weight gain from 6 to 12 months of age was associated with Full-scale Intelligence Quotient, Verbal Comprehension Index, Working Memory Index and Perceptual Reasoning Index. Weight gain during early life was associated with subsequent nutritional status. For every 1 kg increase in weight during the 0- to 6-month period, the OR for underweight, thinness and stunting at 7–9 years of age were 0·19 (95 % CI 0·09, 0·37), 0·34 (95 % CI 0·19, 0·59) and 0·40 (95 % CI 0·19, 0·83), respectively. Weight gain during the periods of 6–12 months of age and 18–24 months of age was also associated with a lower risk of being underweight. Weight gain during early life was associated with better growth outcomes and improved intellectual development in young school-aged children.