This paper addresses the question of the relative importance of economic and regulatory (administrative) factors on the profitability of various components of a fishing fleet. The argument is that, while the official purpose of most regulatory measures is resource conservation, these measures may significantly influence the relative levels of incomes generated by various components of the fleet. When a large part of fisheries management is under the control of fishermen themselves, this illustrates how the endogenous generation of rules by groups of users may affect both economic efficiency and equity. The analysis relies on a field survey of a small-scale inshore fishing fleet of the Northwest part of Brittany (France),which provided data for simulations concerning the impact of various factors on the profitability of boats. According to the results of these simulations, two regulations, concerning the cost of access to some resources and the control of fishing effort, play a significant role in the difference of profitability observed according to boat size. At a time when the ageing of the fleet opens the question its renewal, this might influence durably the dynamics of the fishery.

A 3-year survey was made of several biological markers in mussels (Mytilus edulis) exposed in situ to the oil that came ashore after the wreck of the “Erika” tanker on the Brittany (France) coast in December 1999. The mussel response was assessed using a set of 7 biomarkers, most of them related to the metabolism of organic contaminants. After a series of validation tests, data was evaluated for only 5 biomarkers: acetylcholinesterase (AChE), glutathione S-transferase (GST), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) adducts. No significant reductions in GST or CAT levels were observed, levels of DNA adducts and MDA were high during the 6 months immediately following the accident and levels of AChE were significantly lower during the first year of the survey suggesting a general stress. A simple multivariate graphic method, the integrated biomarker response index, was used to combine 4 of the 5 validated biomarkers and quantify the degree of impact on mussels at different sites. The results show that mussel populations were affected by the oil spill only during the first year after the event.

The application of a simple, fast and reliable volumetric microrespirometric method to assess respiration of bivalve larvae is discussed. As a model, C. gigas larvae of various sizes were used. Metabolic activity of veliger larvae was assessed by measuring respiratory rate for use in ecophysiological modelling. As an example of the application of this approach, additional measurements of veliger respiratory rates were carried out to assess the effect on larval metabolism of different concentrations of leachate from wood treated with chromated copper-arsenate (CCA). Veligers of Crassostrea gigas (length from 95 to 331 µm) were fed with a mixture of Isochrysis galbana and Chaetoceros pumilum cells. Experiments were performed in a 20 °C constant seawater temperature. The wet and dry weight of four length (L, in µm) classes of larvae were obtained from which the relationship between total dry weight and veliger length was derived {DW = e(3.27+L×0.0154)} (R2 = 99%). Moreover, tissue dry weight (TDW; in ng) was calculated according to Gerdes (1983). Since the mathematical model between larval length and respiratory rate explained 88% of the total variability, a more conservative approach using oyster larval dry meat weight (in ng) and respiratory rate (in µl O2 h−1) was developed to establish a linear model explaining 94.5% of the variability: Resp. = -3.849 × 10-4 + 5.211 × 10-6 × TDW. These experiments provided updated figures of C. gigas larval respiratory rates for use in ecophysiological models. The relationship between tissue dry weight and respiratory rate was close to previous estimates obtained by Gerdes (1983) and Hoegh-Guldberg and Manahan (1995) at 25 °C and 20 °C respectively. Our experiments demonstrate that volumetric microrespirometry is suitable for assessing larval respiratory rate and therefore can be used to assess impacts of pollutants on an early larval stage. Oysters exposed to leachates from chromated copper arsenate (CCA) treated timber at 5 kg m−3 showed initially highly variable respiratory rates while those rates decreased drastically for a 15 kg m−3 CCA treatment exposure. Among bioindicators using physiological response to assess pollutant effects, swimming activity and respiratory rates can be compared, the later showing a significant response at a lower pollutant concentration.

The induction of gynogenetic diploids during meiosis II in the scallop Chlamys farreri was attempted using the treatments of cytochalasin B (0.5 μg ml−1; CB) and 6-dimethylaminopurine (60 μg ml−1; 6-DMAP). The effects of CB and 6-DMAP treatments on meiosis and fertilization of eggs were also examined. Haploid gynogenesis was induced by sperm which were ultraviolet-irradiated for 30 s at an intensity of 2561 μW cm−2 s−1. CB and 6-DMAP treatments were highly effective in suppressing meiosis II, yielding 19% and 28% gynogenetic diploids, respectively. Compared with the CB treatment, the 6-DMAP treatment produced more expected D-shaped larvae. Cytological observations revealed that 6-DMAP inhibited pronuclear movements and the segregation of chromosomes, resulting in the formation of one big diploid female pronucleus with strong fluorescence, while CB inhibited cytokinesis, resulting in two female pronuclei formations. The UV-irradiated sperm nucleus developed into a male pronucleus, but did not participate in karyokinesis at mitotic anaphase, suggesting that gynogenetic diploids were induced in the scallop.

Benthic foraminifera are used as potential bio-indicators of pollution due to the “Erika” oil spill. The foraminiferal assemblages from a site situated on the tidal mudflat of the southern Bay of Bourgneuf (Vendée, France) have been sampled 19 times on a monthly/bimonthly scale. The field study reveals uncommon low densities and poor faunas in the first 21 months of the survey. In order to understand the effect of the “Erika” fuel, foraminiferal cultures with 0 to 72.0 mg per 100 ml of “Erika” oil were maintained in controlled conditions in the laboratory. In the laboratory, an experiment with 5.5 mg per 100 ml of oil shows morphological abnormalities, cellular modifications and a low rate of reproduction. These first results confirm the potential toxicity of the fuel No. 2 from “Erika” and the sensitivity of foraminifera to this pollutant.

Several experiments using a self-regulated system were conducted to define the factors likely to influence the uptake of paralytic shellfish poison (PSP) by oysters in the Penzé estuary (France, Brittany). Each 4-day experiment was carried out in a recirculated sea water system using 15 Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) separated from each other and supplied with unfiltered natural seawater containing alternatively toxic (Alexandrium minutum) or non-toxic (Skeletonema costatum) algal diets. The food supply and exposure times to toxic diets were determined according to field studies of the upstream and downstream movement of patches containing A. minutum. The experimental parameters corresponded roughly to the hydrological conditions generally observed in June when tidal coefficients are lowest and blooms occur: (i) A. minutum concentrations in sea water of 200, 5000 and 10 000 cell ml−1; (ii) inorganic matter consisting of 5 and 15 mg L−1 of calcinated muddy sediments; and (iii) low and high tide salinities of 25 and 35‰, respectively. Significant experimental contamination (greater than the 80 µg STX equiv. 100 g-1 sanitary threshold) occurred after 4 days of exposure for the monospecific A. minutum diet (20-200 cell ml−1) and alternated A. minutum and S. costatum diets (5000 and 20 000 cell ml−1, respectively). Contamination levels were less than the sanitary threshold for alternated A. minutum/S. costatum diets of 200 and 20 000 cell ml−1, respectively, and for a monospecific A. minutum diet (1000−10 000 cell ml−1). In the last case, the accumulation rate was quite low, possibly because of inhibition of the filtration rate related to a lower biodeposit production rate and decreased feeding time activity. The addition of inorganic matter appeared to play a significant role in the observed increase of toxin uptake, whereas salinity was not a determining factor for toxin accumulation rates. These last observations were corroborated by statistical analysis and stepwise multiple linear regressions integrating all or some of the experimental parameters.

The impact of the “Erika” oil spill on the tidal rock pool community, and particularly on two species of sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus and Psammechinus miliaris), was investigated over a 3-year period, at Piriac-sur-Mer (Department of Loire-Atlantique, France, 47°21.6' N; 2°31.7' W). A dramatic increase in the abundance of two macroalgae Ulva sp. and Grateloupia doryphora occurred following a 100% mortality of sea urchins observed three weeks after the oil spill. The density of sea urchins and of other main herbivores, the periwinkle Littorina littorea and the trochid mollusks Gibbula umbilicalis and Gibbula pennantii, were monitored between January 2000 and March 2003. There was significant inverse relationship between the overall density of herbivores (sea urchins, periwinkles and trochid mollusks) and the percent cover of algae in the tidal pools. The first urchins in the tidal pools were observed two years after the oil spill and it took three years to reach sea urchin densities comparable to the reference value of 63 ind.m−2 obtained before the oil spill.

An analytical method consisting in enzymatic deconjugation, solid phase extraction and purification, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis after derivatization was used in this study to quantify Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) metabolites in the bile of fish. The method has been applied in a laboratory experiment studying the fate of pyrene in basin containing soles. This study has allowed the identification of 1-hydroxypyrene as the single metabolite in bile after enzymatic deconjugation. In a second time, 1-hydroxypyrene has been used as a biomarker of exposure in the case of the “Erika” oil spill. This biomonitoring was successful in demonstrating the exposure of juvenile soles to PAHs present in the “Erika” fuel oil.

Changes in nekton community structure in north Brazilian intertidal mangrove creeks were studied by setting block nets at high water in the wet season 1999. From a total of 47 species (27 families), the most abundant were: Cathorops sp. (Ariidae), Colomesus psittacus (Tetraodontidae), Hexanematichthys herzbergii (Ariidae), Pseudauchenipterus nodosus (Auchenipteridae), the shrimp Fenneropenaeus subtilis (Penaeidae), Anchovia clupeoides (Engraulidae), Mugil spp. (Mugilidae), and Anableps anableps (Anablepidae). Diversity H' was low (0.9). Mean values of fish density and biomass (± S.E.) were 0.2 ± 0.1 fish m-3 and 2.6 ± 0.7 g m−3 or 1.4 ± 0.4 g m−2, respectively. The high proportion of juvenile fish (87%) and shrimps point to the importance of intertidal mangrove creeks for fish nurseries. The number of species was highest at spring tide-night and lowest at neap tide-day. Evenness J' was lowest at spring tide-night when more rare species entered and dominant species increased in quantitative proportions. Four different species assemblages were identified as being triggered by factor combinations such as “tide” and “time of day”: spring tide-night, spring tide-day, neap tide-night and neap tide-day. High-water level influenced the species assemblages, but salinity and water temperature did not. Abundance of 14 species correlated positively with the high-water level. Strong spring tides yielded extraordinary high nekton catches, suggesting that high-water level is an important parameter in the tidal migration of fish. Most fish entered the mangrove to feed. Predation pressure was considered to be low because of the presence of only a few, mainly juvenile predators. Beach seining in the subtidal parts at low water revealed a high biomass (30 ± 14 g m−2). Larger fish withdraw to depressions, small fish and juvenile shrimp were abundant near the shallow banks, suggesting inter- and intraspecific splitting of the migration routes when returning from the intertidal zone at ebb tide. To cover the entire short-term range of tidal ichthyofauna responses, a sample design should consider the spring/neap and the day/night cycle.

Skates and rays constitute important resources for several fishing fleets of mainland Portugal with total annual landings around 1500 tons. Regardless of their commercial interest, landed specimens are not differentiated at species level. To get a preliminary insight into the species diversity of landings, a pilot sampling program on skates and rays composition was executed in the two ports of mainland Portugal with the highest landings of this group– Matosinhos and Peniche. Sampling was carried out once a month in each port between January and April 2001. Based on the information obtained, a new sampling plan was established for the artisanal fishery (gillnet fleet), at each landing port. This sampling program was conducted until the end of 2001. A total of eight species were identified. Raja brachyura and Raja clavata were the most common species found in the landings of each port, while Raja miraletus was only occasionally recorded. Rajidae landings in mainland Portugal are mainly by-catch of the artisanal segment of the commercial fishing fleet.

Evaluating the ecological impact of an oil spill is a complex issue requiring coherently articulated examination of the sequence of interactions that link the cell, where contaminants exert their effects, to the ecosystem, where interactions with human activities arise. This sequence of interactions traverses the frontiers between scientific disciplines (chemistry, toxicology, physiology, and fisheries ecology). Using the common sole (Solea solea L.) as a model species for the coastal habitats polluted by the “Erika” oil spill, our research project attempted to define indices of functional integrity that characterised the consequences of fuel exposure at the different biological levels. The coupling of field observations with experimental laboratory work revealed how functional alterations which are readily observable within individuals and their organs are progressively obscured as investigation progresses towards more complex organisational levels. Some of the approaches and indices are proposed as instruments for evaluating the impact of contamination by hydrocarbons.

The “Erika” oil spill has killed more seabirds than any before in Europe: nearly 70 000 guillemots (Uria aalge) were found dead or alive on beaches, and many more are thought to have been killed. This unexpectedly high number highlighted how poor our knowledge was on spatial and temporal patterns in seabird distribution in the Bay of Biscay. The purpose of our research project, “ERIKA-Avion”, was to fill this gap, providing the first distribution maps and abundance estimates of seabirds wintering in the entire shelf of the Bay of Biscay. In particular, we analysed fine-grained distribution maps for the wintering auks, comparing their areas of highest density with the oil drift area, and proposing for the first time (although preliminarily) minimal abundance estimates for these birds in this area.

We investigated the impact of the “Erika” oil spill in the Bay of Biscay (France) on seabird populations. Relative abundance and spatial distribution at sea between 1980-1999 and 2000-2002 periods were compared. This study took place in a standardized monitoring at sea carried out with Coast Guard vessels following the line transect method. This work rests on 107 551 standardized counts of one minute before “Erika” and 23 449 after the oil spill. There was not a simple correlation between the number of individuals found oiled and the numerical variation of the populations at sea during the two years following the accident. The guillemot Uria aalge, the most frequently collected species in the north of the Bay of Biscay, showed no decrease in at sea abundance during the two years following the pollution. Conversely, some species found in small numbers on the coast (e.g. divers Gavia sp., razorbill Alca torda, common scoter Melanitta nigra) decreased significantly at sea (20 to 80%). Overall, marine bird populations declined significantly in the northern sector of the Bay of Biscay (48°32' to 46°58' north) and increased in the southern sector (45°13' to 43°15' north), whereas decreases and increases occurred in the central sector (46°57' to 45°14' north). Changes in the spatial distribution of the species after the “Erika” oil spill occurred through disappearance or retraction (Bay of Vilaine, Houat-Hoedic archipelago), or through displacement and reinforcement (Gouf of Capbreton). Overall, this suggests a redistribution of the populations within the Bay of Biscay, depending on the level of injuries to the ecosystems caused by the pollution.

Between 80 000 and 150 000 marine birds wintering in the Bay of Biscay were killed during the “Erika” oil spill. Three complementary studies were conducted to investigate the geographic origins of these birds. The common guillemot, Uria aalge, represented more than 80% of the oiled birds and these studies thus focused primarily on this species. Analyses of 184 ring recoveries and biometry of 1851 corpses indicated that guillemots originated from a large geographic area, including colonies from across the British Isles and the North Sea, along with more northern localities. However, the majority of individuals came from colonies located between western Scotland and the Celtic Sea. The third study, based on a population genetic approach using microsatellite markers (samples from dead oiled birds and from more than 600 birds caught in 19 breeding colonies), showed little genetic differentiation among north-eastern Atlantic guillemot colonies. This result limits the ability to identify the geographic origins of the birds using only DNA samples, but reveals a significant amount of gene flow among colonies. Overall, results indicate the large spatial scale of the oil spill's impact and underline the usefulness of combining multiple approaches to assess the local and regional effects of such accidents.

Oil spills can have direct effects on organisms (mortality or morbidity), indirect effects (through alteration of lower trophic levels) or be associated to exposure to trace elements contained in oil (markers). An effect of the “Erika” oil spill was investigated by spatio-temporally comparing mortality, population structures, diets and concentrations of vanadium, nickel and porphyrines in small delphinids, seals and otters from the French Atlantic coasts. These species might differ in their vulnerability to oil. Changes in mortality and its demographic structures were within previously observed ranges. The diet of the common dolphin showed an extended period of high inter-individual variability in the year 2000. Vanadium concentrations in delphinids were chronically high, but did not increase significantly after the oil spill. Porphyrins concentrations in seals and otters were low suggesting a limited exposure to contaminants, but the ratio between proto- and copro-porphyrins in otter spraints from oiled vs. unoiled sites varied significantly. No measurable effect of the “Erika” oil spill was found in dolphins and seals.

The tanker “Sea Empress” grounded at the entrance to Milford Haven in February 1996, releasing 72 000 t of Forties blend crude oil and 480 t of heavy fuel oil into the waters of southwest Wales. An estimated 15 000 t of emulsified oil came ashore along 200 km of coastline. A fishery exclusion zone was established to protect consumers of fish and shellfish, and monitoring was instigated in order to establish the degree and spread of contamination. A wide range of further studies were conducted with the aim of assessing the overall impact of the spill. In this paper we report on the establishment and subsequent lifting of fishing restrictions and the results of the fish and shellfish monitoring programme. The application of a range of biological effects techniques which illustrated sublethal impacts is also described. In retrospect, the impact of the spill was much less than would have been expected from the quantity of oil spilled. This was due to the circumstances of the spill, which led to fresh crude oil, amenable to chemical dispersion, being released during each ebb tide and carried into deep water to the south of Milford Haven. This enabled the extensive dispersant spraying operation, which included the aerial application of 446 t of chemical oil dispersant in order to enhance the rate of natural dispersion of the oil. This reduced the impact of the spill by preventing an additional 57 000 to 110 000 t of emulsified oil from impacting the beaches.