Agroecology and industrial ecology can be viewed as complementary means for reducing the environmental footprint of animal farming systems: agroecology mainly by stimulating natural processes to reduce inputs, and industrial ecology by closing system loops, thereby reducing demand for raw materials, lowering pollution and saving on waste treatment. Surprisingly, animal farming systems have so far been ignored in most agroecological thinking. On the basis of a study by Altieri, who identified the key ecological processes to be optimized, we propose five principles for the design of sustainable animal production systems: (i) adopting management practices aiming to improve animal health, (ii) decreasing the inputs needed for production, (iii) decreasing pollution by optimizing the metabolic functioning of farming systems, (iv) enhancing diversity within animal production systems to strengthen their resilience and (v) preserving biological diversity in agroecosystems by adapting management practices. We then discuss how these different principles combine to generate environmental, social and economic performance in six animal production systems (ruminants, pigs, rabbits and aquaculture) covering a long gradient of intensification. The two principles concerning economy of inputs and reduction of pollution emerged in nearly all the case studies, a finding that can be explained by the economic and regulatory constraints affecting animal production. Integrated management of animal health was seldom mobilized, as alternatives to chemical drugs have only recently been investigated, and the results are not yet transferable to farming practices. A number of ecological functions and ecosystem services (recycling of nutrients, forage yield, pollination, resistance to weed invasion, etc.) are closely linked to biodiversity, and their persistence depends largely on maintaining biological diversity in agroecosystems. We conclude that the development of such ecology-based alternatives for animal production implies changes in the positions adopted by technicians and extension services, researchers and policymakers. Animal production systems should not only be considered holistically, but also in the diversity of their local and regional conditions. The ability of farmers to make their own decisions on the basis of the close monitoring of system performance is most important to ensure system sustainability.

Mixed crop–livestock systems, combining livestock and cash crops at farm level, are considered to be suitable for sustainable intensification of agriculture. Ensuring the survival of mixed crop–livestock systems is a challenge for European agriculture: the number of European mixed crop–livestock farms has been decreasing since 1970. Analysis of farming system dynamics may elucidate past changes and the forces driving this decline. The objectives of this study were (i) to identify the diversity of paths that allowed the survival of mixed crop–livestock farming and (ii) to elucidate the driving forces behind such survival. We analysed the variety of farm trajectories from 1950 to 2005. We studied the entire farm population of a case study site, located in the ‘Coteaux de Gascogne’ region. In this less favoured area of south-western France, farmers have limited specialisation. Currently, half of the farms use mixed crop–livestock systems. The data set of 20 variables for 50 farms on the basis of six 10-year time steps was collected through retrospective surveys. We used a two-step analysis including (i) a visual assessment of the whole population of individual farm trajectories and (ii) a computer-based typology of farm trajectories on the basis of a series of multivariate analyses followed by automatic clustering. The European Common Agricultural Policy, market globalisation and decreasing workforce availability were identified as drivers of change that favoured the specialisation process. Nevertheless, farmers’ choices and values have opposed against these driving forces, ensuring the survival of some mixed crop–livestock farming systems. The trajectories were clustered into five types, four of which were compatible with mixed crop–livestock systems. The first type was the maximisation of autonomy by combining crops and livestock. The second type was diversification of production to exploit economies of scope and protect the farm against market fluctuations. The other two types involved enlargement and progressive adaptation of the farm to the familial workforce. The survival of mixed crop–livestock systems in these two types is largely dependent on workforce availability. Only one type of trajectory, on the basis of enlargement and economies of scale, did not lead to mixed crop–livestock systems. In view of the current evolution of the driving forces, maximising autonomy and diversification appear to be suitable paths to deal with current challenges and maintain mixed crop–livestock systems in Europe.

Structural changes lead to increasing sizes of dairy herds and a reduction in grazing use. Thus, cows spend more time in the barn and become more exposed to the barn environment. The cubicle surface can result in damages of the cows’ hock joint integument. Pasture is generally seen as a beneficial environment for cows. We hypothesized that a higher number of daily grazing hours reduce the probability of hock joint alterations in dairy cows from large herds. In total, 3148 lactating cows from 36 grazing and 20 zero-grazing dairy herds, with an average herd size of 173 cows, were assessed individually on one randomly selected body side for alterations in hock integument (score 0 for no alterations or hairless areas <2 cm, 1 for at least one hairless area of ⩾2 cm, 2 for lesion or swelling). The cows were further assessed for lameness and cleanliness. Information on breed, parity and days in milk per cow was extracted from a national database. Cubicle surface was evaluated for each herd. Daily grazing hours 30 days before herd visits were recorded by the stockmen and later categorized as follows: zero hours (zero-grazing), few hours (3 to 9) and many hours (>9 to 21). The effects of daily grazing hours and other potential cow and herd-level risk factors were evaluated for their impact on hock integument alterations using a logistic analysis with a multi-level model structure. The probability for hock integument alterations such as hair loss, lesions or swellings decreased with increasing amount of grazing hours (odds of 3 to 9 h 2.2 times and odds of >9 to 21 h 4.8 times lower than of zero-grazing). The probability for only lesions or swellings decreased with >9 to 21 grazing hours (odds 2.1 times) but not with 3 to 9 h (odds 1.0 times) compared with zero-grazing. Lameness, hard cubicle surface and Danish Holstein v. other breeds showed an increasing effect on the probability for integument alterations. Increase in days in milk only showed an increasing effect on the probability for lesions and swellings. We concluded that a long daily stay on pasture is most beneficial for the hock joint integument of a dairy cow.

In a previous study, carnitine supplementation to piglets during the suckling period resulted in an increased total muscle fibre number at weaning in piglets of low birth weight. The objective of the present study was to investigate whether this effect is maintained until market age and whether this would attenuate the negative consequences of low birth weight on carcass and meat quality. Using a split-plot design with litter as block, sex as whole plot and treatment as subplot, the effects of early-postnatal l-carnitine supplementation on female and castrated male piglets of low birth weight were investigated on a total of 56 German Landrace piglets from 14 litters. From days 7 to 27 of age piglets were orally supplemented once daily with 400 mg of l-carnitine dissolved in 1 ml of water or received an equal volume of water without carnitine. From weaning (day 28) until slaughter (day 166 of age) all pigs were fed standard diets. At weaning, carnitine-supplemented piglets had a twofold increased concentration of free carnitine (P < 0.001) and a lower concentration of non-esterified fatty acids (P < 0.05) in blood plasma indicating that carnitine became bioavailable and increased fatty acid utilization during the period of supplementation. Growth performance was not influenced by treatment in any growth period. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry revealed no differences in body composition between groups in weeks 12, 16 and 20 of age. LW at slaughter, carcass weight, measures of meat yield and fat accretion, as well as body composition by chemical analyses and dissection of primal cuts did not differ between treatments. No differences between control and carnitine-treated pigs in total fibre number (P = 0.85) and fibre cross-sectional area (P = 0.68) in m. semitendinosus (ST) measured at slaughter could be observed. The carnitine group tended to exhibit a smaller proportion of slow-twitch oxidative fibres (P = 0.08), a greater proportion of fast-twitch glycolytic fibres (P = 0.11), and increased specific lactate dehydrogenase activity (P = 0.09) in ST indicating a more glycolytic muscle metabolism. Compared with the controls, a lower pH24 value was observed (P = 0.05) in ST muscle of carnitine-supplemented pigs, which – in castrates only – was associated with an increased drip loss (P < 0.01). Meat quality traits in m. longissimus were not influenced by treatment. In conclusion, our hypothesis that early-postnatal carnitine supplementation to piglets of low birth weight permanently increases myofibre number and improves later carcass and meat quality could not be confirmed by this experiment.

Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture takes advantage of the mutualism between some detritivorous fish and phytoplankton. The fish recycle nutrients by consuming live (and dead) algae and provide the inorganic carbon to fuel the growth of live algae. In the meanwhile, algae purify the water and generate the oxygen required by fishes. Such mechanism stabilizes the functioning of an artificially recycling ecosystem, as exemplified by combining the euryhaline tilapia Sarotherodon melanotheron heudelotii and the unicellular alga Chlorella sp. Feed addition in this ecosystem results in faster fish growth but also in an increase in phytoplankton biomass, which must be limited. In the prototype described here, the algal population control is exerted by herbivorous zooplankton growing in a separate pond connected in parallel to the fish–algae ecosystem. The zooplankton production is then consumed by tilapia, particularly by the fry and juveniles, when water is returned to the main circuit. Chlorella sp. and Brachionus plicatilis are two planktonic species that have spontaneously colonized the brackish water of the prototype, which was set-up in Senegal along the Atlantic Ocean shoreline. In our system, water was entirely recycled and only evaporation was compensated (1.5% volume/day). Sediment, which accumulated in the zooplankton pond, was the only trophic cul-de-sac. The system was temporarily destabilized following an accidental rotifer invasion in the main circuit. This caused Chlorella disappearance and replacement by opportunist algae, not consumed by Brachionus. Following the entire consumption of the Brachionus population by tilapias, Chlorella predominated again. Our artificial ecosystem combining S. m. heudelotii, Chlorella and B. plicatilis thus appeared to be resilient. This farming system was operated over one year with a fish productivity of 1.85 kg/m2 per year during the cold season (January to April).

Abrupt weaning, a usual management in sheep productive systems, may provoke behavioural and physiological responses indicative of stress in ewes and lambs. Progesterone (P4) has anxiolytic and sedative effects through the union of its metabolites that contain 3α-hydroxyl group to the γ-aminobutyricacidA receptor. Our first aim was to determine whether P4 administration reduces the behavioural and physiological responses of ewes to abrupt weaning of lambs. A complementary aim was to determine whether P4 treatment affects the milk yield and composition of ewes, and the BW of their lambs. In experiment 1, seven ewes received P4 treatment for 32 days (group E1-P4), and eight ewes remained as an untreated control group (group E1-C). BW of the lambs was recorded during P4 treatment. Lambs were weaned at 59 days (Day 0 = weaning). The main behaviours of the ewes before and after weaning were recorded using 10 min scan sampling. The ewes’ serum total protein, albumin and globulin concentrations were measured before and after weaning of the lambs. In experiment 2, milk yield and composition were determined in two different groups of six ewes treated with P4 (group E2-P4) for 16 days and in five untreated controls (group E2-C). The BW of lambs increased with time (P = 0.001) in both groups and did not differ. The percentage of observations in which the ewes were seen pacing on Day 0 was greater in the E1-C group than in the E1-P4 group (P = 0.0007). Similarly, the percentage of observations in which the ewes were recorded vocalizing on Day 0 was greater in the E1-C group than in the E1-P4 group (P = 0.04). The percentage of observations in which E1-C ewes were recorded lying did not change from Days 0 to 1; however, it increased in E1-P4 ewes. Total serum protein concentration did not change in E1-P4 ewes from Days 0 to 3, although a decrease was seen in E1-C ewes (P = 0.04). Serum globulin concentration was greater in E1-P4 ewes on Day 3 than in E1-C ewes (P = 0.0008). In experiment 2, there were no differences between E2-P4 and E2-C ewes in terms of milk yield, protein, fat and lactose content. Progesterone administration reduced the behavioural and physiological responses of ewes to abrupt weaning of lambs, and this effect was not mediated by changes in milk yield and composition, or by lambs’ BW.

The aim of this trial was to study the concentration of zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), selenium (Se), cobalt (Co) and iodine (I) in milk and blood serum of lactating donkeys, taking into account the effects of lactation stage and dietary supplementation with trace elements. During a 3-month period, 16 clinically healthy lactating donkeys (Martina-Franca-derived population), randomly divided into two homogeneous groups (control (CTL) and trace elements (TE)), were used to provide milk and blood samples at 2-week intervals. Donkeys in both groups had continuous access to meadow hay and were fed 2.5 kg of mixed feed daily, divided into two meals. The mixed feed for the TE group had the same ingredients as the CTL, but was supplemented with a commercial premix providing 163 mg Zn, 185 mg Fe, 36 mg Cu, 216 mg Mn, 0.67 mg Se, 2.78 mg Co and 3.20 mg I/kg mixed feed. The concentrations of Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, Se, Co and I were measured in feeds, milk and blood serum by inductively coupled plasma-MS. Data were processed by ANOVA for repeated measures. The milk concentrations of all the investigated elements were not significantly affected by the dietary supplementation with TE. Serum concentrations of Zn, Fe, Cu Mn and Se were not affected by dietary treatment, but TE-supplemented donkeys showed significantly higher concentrations of serum Co (1.34 v. 0.69 μg/l) and I (24.42 v. 21.43 μg/l) than unsupplemented donkeys. The effect of lactation stage was significant for all the investigated elements in milk and blood serum, except for serum manganese. A clear negative trend during lactation was observed for milk Cu and Se concentrations (−38%), whereas that of Mn tended to increase. The serum Cu concentration was generally constant and that of Co tended to increase. If compared with data reported in the literature for human milk, donkey milk showed similarities for Zn, Mn, Co and I. Furthermore, this study indicated that, in the current experimental conditions, the mineral profile of donkey milk was not dependent on dietary TE supply.

This review deals with the behaviour of river buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), in confinement and in extensive conditions, also focusing on the effects of different housing and rearing conditions on their welfare. The behavioural repertoire expressed by buffaloes in extensive and intensive conditions is similar to those displayed by other domestic ruminants. However, through natural selection, buffaloes have also acquired several morphological, physiological and behavioural (i.e. wallowing) adaptations to hot climatic conditions. Buffaloes kept in intensive conditions and having no access to pasture and water for wallowing extend their periods of idling and are less often involved in investigative activities. Confinement is also associated with a reduction of space; however, no specific studies have been carried out to determine the specific requirements of this species. Space restriction can adversely affect various aspects of buffalo welfare, such as health (increased levels of lesions and injuries), social behaviour (increased number of agonistic interactions) and heat dissipation. The buffaloes, originating from tropical areas, are well adapted to large variations in food availability and quality, and to dietetic unbalances. As to human animal relationship, it has been observed that the incidence of stepping and kicking behaviour of buffaloes in the milking parlour is positively correlated with the frequency of oxytocin injections, whereas the frequency of positive stockperson interactions with the animals such as talking quietly, petting and gentle touching are negatively correlated with the number of kicks during milking. Data from farms where both dairy cattle and buffaloes are present show that avoidance distance measured in the pen is lower in buffaloes than in cattle. This may be attributed to the fact that buffaloes are generally recognised to be curious animals. Finally, the effects of different farming practices on animal-related indicators are described. However, these measures should be integrated into a monitoring protocol, such as the Welfare Quality® scheme, to reliably assess buffalo welfare in the current intensive farming conditions.

It is well documented that global warming is unequivocal. Dairy production systems are considered as important sources of greenhouse gas emissions; however, little is known about the sensitivity and vulnerability of these production systems themselves to climate warming. This review brings different aspects of dairy cow production in Central Europe into focus, with a holistic approach to emphasize potential future consequences and challenges arising from climate change. With the current understanding of the effects of climate change, it is expected that yield of forage per hectare will be influenced positively, whereas quality will mainly depend on water availability and soil characteristics. Thus, the botanical composition of future grassland should include species that are able to withstand the changing conditions (e.g. lucerne and bird's foot trefoil). Changes in nutrient concentration of forage plants, elevated heat loads and altered feeding patterns of animals may influence rumen physiology. Several promising nutritional strategies are available to lower potential negative impacts of climate change on dairy cow nutrition and performance. Adjustment of feeding and drinking regimes, diet composition and additive supplementation can contribute to the maintenance of adequate dairy cow nutrition and performance. Provision of adequate shade and cooling will reduce the direct effects of heat stress. As estimated genetic parameters are promising, heat stress tolerance as a functional trait may be included into breeding programmes. Indirect effects of global warming on the health and welfare of animals seem to be more complicated and thus are less predictable. As the epidemiology of certain gastrointestinal nematodes and liver fluke is favourably influenced by increased temperature and humidity, relations between climate change and disease dynamics should be followed closely. Under current conditions, climate change associated economic impacts are estimated to be neutral if some form of adaptation is integrated. Therefore, it is essential to establish and adopt mitigation strategies covering available tools from management, nutrition, health and plant and animal breeding to cope with the future consequences of climate change on dairy farming.

Rearing entire pigs may lead to meat quality and welfare problems in relation to pubertal development. A better knowledge of the sources of variation of pubertal development, behaviour and boar taint is needed before generalizing entire male pigs. From 84 days of age, entire male pigs were reared in groups of 10 either in a conventional (C, 1 m²/animal, slatted floor) or an enriched (E, 2.5 m²/animal, straw bedding, outdoor run) housing during spring or autumn and fed ad libitum (n=10/housing/season). Mounting behaviour was observed for 3 h during the third (M3), fourth (M4) and fifth (M5) months of age. The total number of skin lesions was counted on both sides of the pigs 1 day before the behavioural recordings. The time spent in the outdoor run was also recorded during 3 days per month. The animals were slaughtered at 161±1 days of age (122±9 kg live weight). Blood samples were collected at 89 (M3), 119 (M4) and 152 (M5) days of age and at slaughter for the testosterone and oestradiol measurements. The testes were collected at slaughter, freed from the surrounding tissues and weighed. The fat samples were collected for the androstenone and skatole concentration measurement. Plasma testosterone and oestradiol-17β (oestradiol), fat androstenone and skatole and weight of the testes did not differ between the housing systems. Plasma testosterone (8.3 v. 3.9 nmol/l, P<0.05) and oestradiol (12.0 v. 9.2 pmol/l, P<0.1) at M3, fat skatole (0.124 v. 0.043, P<0.03) and weight of the testes (587 v. 512 g, P<0.05) were higher in the autumn than in the spring trial, suggesting that the pubertal development was accelerated. The number of received mounting behaviours was slightly higher in the autumn (P=0.08) trial and was markedly higher in the E than in the C environment (P<0.003). Skin lesions were more numerous in the C than in the E housing at M4 and M5 and in the spring than in the autumn trial at M3 and M4 (P<0.05). Fat androstenone and the number of performed mounting behaviours were significantly correlated between each other and with numerous indicators of the pubertal development (P<0.05). The number of skin lesions was correlated with plasma testosterone and live weight (P<0.05). Overall, this study suggests the effect of season on sexual development, the effect of the housing system on behaviour, and demonstrates the links between sexual hormones, behaviour and boar taint.

This study aimed to catalogue the digital dermatitis (DD) treatment practices used by French dairy farmers and to identify the motivators and barriers to the adoption of these treatments. A semi-structured survey was conducted involving 65 farmers in the main dairy production areas of France in the spring of 2009. The different treatment modalities implemented by farmers since the first diagnosis of DD in their herds were described. The reasons for adopting or abandoning these treatments were then investigated based on criteria of perceived effectiveness, labour, time, cost and toxicity related to their use. For individual treatments, farmers used 30 different products, applied through three different routes, for 1 to 21 consecutive days. For collective treatments, farmers used 31 products, applied through four different routes, at a rate ranging from once a day to once a year. Several products, especially antibiotics, were used without observing the manufacturer's instructions. The principal criteria for the adoption of a treatment was the perceived effectiveness in healing DD lesions and in limiting recurrence, while the principal barriers to adopting a treatment were the time and labour required for its application, followed by cost. Topical oxytetracycline treatments applied individually were used and adopted the most. They were perceived to be effective in healing DD lesions. However, these treatments were judged labour and time consuming, particularly when many animals had to be treated. Collective treatments combining formalin and copper sulphate often were applied topically using walk-though footbaths. These treatments often were judged to be insufficiently effective in healing DD lesions, difficult to implement, labour and time consuming and costly. The plethora of DD treatment practices and the misuse of some treatments could suggest that there is a lack of guidelines available to farmers on the optimal use and expected effectiveness of treatments. Clinical trials should be conducted to develop recommendations based on scientific rather than empirical data, and to identify the DD control measures which consume the least amount of time and labour.

The aim of this study was to analyse the effects of species (Muscovy and Pekin ducks) and age at the beginning of the overfeeding period on fatty liver production, carcass composition and lipid and moisture content of the liver and breast muscle. We reared four groups of 40 ducks per species for the study, starting at 2-week intervals in order to have four different ages together at the beginning of the overfeeding period (10, 12, 14 and 16 weeks). At the end of the overfeeding period, all ducks were slaughtered. Our results confirmed the high levels of difference in carcass composition and lipid content in the plasma, liver and breast muscle between Muscovy and Pekin ducks at all ages. Pekin ducks were not able to develop a high degree of hepatic steatosis, but had increased lipid storage in peripheral adipose and muscle tissues than Muscovy ducks. However, the fatty liver weight of Pekin ducks increased with age, with lipid deposition in the liver and peripheral tissues. The ability of Muscovy ducks to produce fatty livers remained unchanged with age in line, with lipid deposition in the liver and peripheral tissues. The sites of lipid deposition thus depend on species and not on the physiological maturity of ducks.

The effect of sex on carcass measurement, physico-chemical properties, nutritional value and sensory characteristics of foal meat slaughtered at 15 months was investigated. Twelve foals (six females and six males) from an extensive production system in freedom regimen were used for this study. Sex had no statistical influence on carcass measurements, chemical composition, colour parameters, textural properties, amino acid content and sensory characteristics. In contrast, there was a clear effect on the fatty acid profile of longissimus dorsi. Slaughter weight was not significantly (P > 0.05) different between sexes, although higher values were observed in male group compared with female group (194 v. 184 kg). As a consequence, this trend affected carcass weight being slightly (P > 0.05) heavier in the male group than in the female group. On the other hand, cooking loss samples from males showed significantly higher values than those from females (21.50% v. 14.96%, P < 0.05). From a nutritional point of view, the n-6/n-3 ratio in both sexes was within the recommended range for the human diet and this ratio was ostensibly different between the sexes (1.83 v. 1.36, P < 0.05, for male and female, respectively) and it showed a strong correlation (r = −0.91, P < 0.01) with C18:3n-3 content.

To analyse trends in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from production and consumption of animal products in Sweden, life cycle emissions were calculated for the average production of pork, chicken meat, beef, dairy and eggs in 1990 and 2005. The calculated average emissions were used together with food consumption statistics and literature data on imported products to estimate trends in per capita emissions from animal food consumption. Total life cycle emissions from the Swedish livestock production were around 8.5 Mt carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) in 1990 and emissions decreased to 7.3 Mt CO2e in 2005 (14% reduction). Around two-thirds of the emission cut was explained by more efficient production (less GHG emission per product unit) and one-third was due to a reduced animal production. The average GHG emissions per product unit until the farm-gate were reduced by 20% for dairy, 15% for pork and 23% for chicken meat, unchanged for eggs and increased by 10% for beef. A larger share of the average beef was produced from suckler cows in cow–calf systems in 2005 due to the decreasing dairy cow herd, which explains the increased emissions for the average beef in 2005. The overall emission cuts from the livestock sector were a result of several measures taken in farm production, for example increased milk yield per cow, lowered use of synthetic nitrogen fertilisers in grasslands, reduced losses of ammonia from manure and a switch to biofuels for heating in chicken houses. In contrast to production, total GHG emissions from the Swedish consumption of animal products increased by around 22% between 1990 and 2005. This was explained by strong growth in meat consumption based mainly on imports, where growth in beef consumption especially was responsible for most emission increase over the 15-year period. Swedish GHG emissions caused by consumption of animal products reached around 1.1 t CO2e per capita in 2005. The emission cuts necessary for meeting a global temperature-increase target of 2° might imply a severe constraint on the long-term global consumption of animal food. Due to the relatively limited potential for reducing food-related emissions by higher productivity and technological means, structural changes in food consumption towards less emission-intensive food might be required for meeting the 2° target.

The objective of this review was to examine the application and relative efficiency of the proprietary hand-held Laser Methane Detector (LMD) in livestock production, with a focus on opportunities and challenges in different production systems. The LMD is based on IR absorption spectroscopy, uses a semiconductor laser as a collimated excitation source and uses the second harmonic detection of wavelength modulation spectroscopy to establish a methane (CH4) concentration measurement. The use of the LMD for CH4 detection in dairy cows is relatively recent. Although developed for entirely different purposes, the LMD provides an opportunity for non-invasive and non-contact scan sampling of enteric CH4. With the possibility for real-time CH4 measurements, the LMD offers a molecular-sensitive technique for enteric CH4 detection in ruminants. Initial studies have demonstrated a relatively strong agreement between CH4 measurements from the LMD with those recorded in the indirect open-circuit respiration calorimetric chamber (correlation coefficient, r = 0.8, P < 0.001). The LMD has also demonstrated a strong ability to detect periods of high-enteric CH4 concentration (sensitivity = 95%) and the ability to avoid misclassifying periods of low-enteric CH4 concentration (specificity = 79%). Being portable, the LMD enables spot sampling of methane in different locations and production systems. Two challenges are discussed in the present review. First is on extracting a representation of a point measurement from breath cycle concentrations. The other is on using the LMD in grazing environment. Work so far has shown the need to integrate ambient condition statistics in the flux values. Despite the challenges that have been associated with the use of the LMD, with further validation, the technique has the potential to be utilised as an alternative method in enteric CH4 measurements in ruminants.

Although the intensive production system of Lacaune dairy sheep is the only profitable method for producers outside of the French Roquefort area, little is known about this type of systems. This study evaluated yield records of 3677 Lacaune sheep under intensive management between 2005 and 2010 in order to describe the lactation curve of this breed and to investigate the suitability of different mathematical functions for modeling this curve. A total of 7873 complete lactations during a 40-week lactation period corresponding to 201 281 pieces of weekly yield data were used. First, five mathematical functions were evaluated on the basis of the residual mean square, determination coefficient, Durbin Watson and Runs Test values. The two better models were found to be Pollott Additive and fractional polynomial (FP). In the second part of the study, the milk yield, peak of milk yield, day of peak and persistency of the lactations were calculated with Pollot Additive and FP models and compared with the real data. The results indicate that both models gave an extremely accurate fit to Lacaune lactation curves in order to predict milk yields (P = 0.871), with the FP model being the best choice to provide a good fit to an extensive amount of real data and applicable on farm without specific statistical software. On the other hand, the interpretation of the parameters of the Pollott Additive function helps to understand the biology of the udder of the Lacaune sheep. The characteristics of the Lacaune lactation curve and milk yield are affected by lactation number and length. The lactation curves obtained in the present study allow the early identification of ewes with low milk yield potential, which will help to optimize farm profitability.

This study evaluated effects of farming practice scenarios aiming to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and subsequent alternative land use on environmental impacts of a beef cattle production system using the life cycle assessment approach. The baseline scenario includes a standard cow–calf herd with finishing heifers based on grazing, and a standard bull-fattening herd using a diet mainly based on maize silage, corresponding to current farm characteristics and management by beef farmers in France. Alternative scenarios were developed with changes in farming practices. Some scenarios modified grassland management (S1: decreasing mineral N fertiliser on permanent grassland; S2: decreasing grass losses during grazing) or herd management (S3: underfeeding of heifers in winter; S4: fattening female calves instead of being reared at a moderate growth rate; S5: increasing longevity of cows from 7 to 9 years; S6: advancing first calving age from 3 to 2 years). Other scenarios replaced protein sources (S7: partially replacing a protein supplement by lucerne hay for the cow–calf herd; S8: replacing soya bean meal with rapeseed meal for the fattening herd) or increased n-3 fatty acid content using extruded linseed (S9). The combination of compatible scenarios S1, S2, S5, S6 and S8 was also studied (S10). The impacts, such as climate change (CC, not including CO2 emissions/sequestration of land use and land-use change, LULUC), CC/LULUC (including CO2 emissions of LULUC), cumulative energy demand, eutrophication (EP), acidification and land occupation (LO) were expressed per kg of carcass mass and per ha of land occupied. Compared with the baseline, the most promising practice to reduce impacts per kg carcass mass was S10 (all reduced by 13% to 28%), followed by S6 (by 8% to 10%). For other scenarios, impact reduction did not exceed 5%, except for EP (up to 11%) and LO (up to 10%). Effects of changes in farming practices (the scenarios) on environmental impacts varied according to impact category and functional unit. For some scenarios (S2, S4, S6 and S10), permanent grassland area and LO per kg of carcass decreased by 12% to 23% and 9% to 19%, respectively. If the ‘excess’ permanent grassland was converted to fast-growing conifer forest to sequester carbon in tree and soil biomass, CC/LULUC per kg of carcass could be reduced by 20%, 25%, 27% and 48% for scenarios S2, S4, S6 and S10, respectively. These results illustrate the potential of farming practices and forest as an alternative land use to contribute to short- and mid-term GHG mitigation of beef cattle production systems.