Well the WPC is upon us! And here’s hoping for an excellent turn out of trade, commercial and academic delegates. The Chinese Branch have been very active in their organisation leading up to the event and should be congratulated on their hard work. Of course, this is the year when new board members are elected, or old ones retained, and I would like to pass on my regards to our new President Dr Ning Yang. We will have two meetings as a consequence, one for the outgoing board and one to welcome new members. I look forward to seeing both old colleagues and new.

The Journal continues to grow and diversify, and I trust you will enjoy this current issue. For potential authors, please be aware that we no longer take INFPD papers unless they have special global reach – and all papers for this field should now be redirected to DrFallou Gueye at [email protected] who is now publishing these papers for a more targeted readership.

Recent papers given in the USA by the WPSA branch there have further highlighted the role of micro-organisms on the gut and how they can affect behaviour via production of neurotransmitters, as discussed by Dr Lyte (see association news). New topics within poultry science such as this are very good to see. As an association we continue to grow and adapt to the new challenges of poultry science including generating interest in young scientists to stay within the industry. Often it’s the students that are investigating novel new concepts that lead to new chapters in the field. I always try to be encouraging for our younger scientists to become published – especially as many are writing literature reviews on new areas as part of their thesis submission. Please feel free to contact me regarding such review papers, if you are in any doubt about relevance.

Otherwise, I look forward to seeing you at WPC, especially the Editorial Board members, without which the Journal would cease to function. Thanks to them for all their input!

Dr Lucy Waldron

Editor

The importance of the crop is often underestimated in poultry production. In addition to storing ingested feed, it also can impact nutrient digestion by digesta softening and the initial activity of feed (endogenous and exogenous) and microbial enzymes. The crop represents the first major defence against poultry pathogens and zoonotic organisms with well established adaptive and innate immune function, and a lactobacilli dominated microbiota capable of reducing the passage of these organisms further along the digestive tract. However, the potential to improve bird productivity and health, as well as affect meat and egg safety, are influenced by the nature of the diet, and in particular feed entry and extended presence in the crop. This is required to promote lactobacilli fermentation, the production of lactic acid and other volatile fatty acids, and the lowering of crop pH. Management practices such as meal feeding and the use of lighting programs with extended dark periods encourage crop utilisation. Further, the use of feed additives such as prebiotics and probiotics may enhance crop function, which in turn contributes to well-being of the entire digestive tract. A healthy and functional crop, along with other segments of digestive tract, has increased importance in an era of reduced antibiotic use in poultry feeds.

Cottonseed meal (CSM) is a by-product of the oil industry, i.e. oil extraction from cotton seeds. It is a rich source of protein (30 to 50% dry matter), characterised by a high concentration of amino acids. However, a relatively low concentration of lysine restricts the quality of protein in CSM. Its use as a feed material in poultry nutrition is limited mainly by free gossypol presence, as well as high variability in nutrient concentration. Gossypol is a polyphenolic compound reducing protein digestibility by inhibition of pepsin and trypsin activity in the intestine and binding iron in the diet. High dietary levels of CSM can negatively affect growth performance and egg production and quality. Dietary treatments including increased iron and lysine supplementation can increase the usefulness of CSM in poultry nutrition by alleviating the toxic effect of gossypol. The results of recent experiments on the use of CSM meal as a feed material for poultry are discussed in this review article. Based on the results presented, cottonseed meal is an acceptable ingredient of poultry diets and could be safely fed at a 10-15% dietary level, partially replacing - in a cost effective way - soybean meal.

The relationship between the use of antibiotics and the presence of antibiotic resistant strains of E. coli, as well as antibiotic residues in poultry litter, mainly due to irregular use of antibiotics is reviewed in the present paper. The aim of this review is to examine the existing problem of poultry waste management and how it can impact agricultural ecology and economy. Actions such as monitoring and reporting incidents of disease outbreaks in the future should provide an outline of how to improve and implement suitable regulations.

AA amyloidosis (AAA) is a disease known as amyloid arthropathy in chicken, which represents substantial economic losses, in addition to welfare concerns. Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis) is the major pathogen found in field outbreaks of amyloid arthropathy and its specific association with this disease has been extensively confirmed. The following review discusses the sequence types of E. faecalis associated with AAA that have been identified and characterised both poultry and humans and provide different hypotheses and theories about pathogenesis and transmission of this disease. This article covers the pathology both in field and induced cases of avian amyloidosis and concludes with approaches for a possible treatment, needs for further research and future perspectives. This paper is a consolidation of current knowledge on AAA in chickens which has been obtained over the last twenty years.

Reduction of potential environmental pollutants is a major issue for the sustainable development of the poultry industry. Accumulation of excessive manure and nitrogen poses a risk to animal and human health and ground and surface water cleanliness. In conventional poultry, synthetic amino acids and enzyme supplementations are commonly used to balance the diet and improve digestibility of nutritive compounds. However, diet preparation with sufficient nutrients and minimum amount of excessive nitrogen which still provides optimal growth and health performance continues to be a challenge. This review focuses on various approaches leading to improvement of feed formulation in conventional poultry production systems. The use of crystalline amino acids and genetically engineered plant protein sources in the conventional poultry industry with regard to optimisation of nitrogen level in poultry diets are discussed, and the application of the ideal protein ratio concept in poultry feed preparation as a tool for nitrogen level optimisation is outlined.

Currently whole grain is incorporated into poultry diets to lower production costs, stimulate the development of the gizzard, prevent potentially pathogenic bacteria from entering the intestine and improve the growth rate and feed conversion of birds. The present review discusses the results of experiments performed on turkeys where whole grain (WG) or large-sized feed particles were incorporated into diets with the use of different processing methods (with pre- or post-pelleting inclusion) and in different quantities. The results of recent experiments indicated that, within the first month, gizzard weight increased significantly when the size of feed particles was increased from 380 to 806 mm, or when turkey diets were supplemented with 20% WG. In older birds, gizzard weight increased when the WG content of pelleted diets exceeded 20%. Dietary dilution with WG did not cause significant changes in the development or functionality of the small intestine, including mucosal enzyme activity. The presence of WG in the diet increased the amount of coarse particles in the digesta leaving the gizzard, which did not lower the apparent digestibility of dry matter and crude fibre or nitrogen retention. The inclusion of WG in turkey diets led to a decrease in the counts of Clostridium spp., Campylobacter and/or Escherichia coli, and an increase in the counts of Lactobacillus spp. and/or Bifidobacterium spp. in the caecal digesta. However the effect of WG inclusion in turkey diets on gut morphology has been investigated in only a few studies to date, and the results are inconclusive.

The consumption of n-3 PUFAs is low, particularly the long chain (>18 carbon atoms) fatty acids that are most commonly found in fish oils. These dietary fatty acids have been shown to have a great effect on the health and immune status of different species including humans, rats and poultry. The current paper reviews studies on the effect of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids on B- and T-cell subpopulations in peripheral blood, spleen, and thymus of poultry.

Enzymatic activity assays, used mainly to show biochemical transformations in humans and mammals, have recently found increasing application in birds. Enzyme activity in birds is affected by numerous factors, including age, sex, species, breed, nutrition, physiological state, and farming techniques. In large-scale poultry breeding, in a flock that may number over ten thousand birds, individual birds may be in different stages of development of a disease process, and may respond differently to stress factors present during rearing. There is also high individual variation among birds, so that results of enzyme activity analyses fall within fairly broad ranges. The aim of this paper is to review experiments on the activity of selected antioxidant, liver and cardiac enzyme profiles in turkey tissues. The results of many years of measurements of the activity of selected enzymes, presented in this study, may be considered physiologically normal for this group of birds. Analyses of the activity of these enzymes are important in determining whether oxidative stress reactions are induced in cells and which cells or organs have been damaged. During oxidative stress, which leads to cell damage or organ dysfunction (of the liver or heart), there is generally an increase in the activity of AST, ALT, ALP, LDH, GGT, SORD, MDH, AC, G6PC, G6PD, Cp, CK and HBDH, and a decrease in that of SOD, GPx, CAT, ACHE, BCHE, SDH, Ca2+ATPase. On the basis of the literature reviewed it can be concluded that the use of feed components and supplements with antioxidant or immunostimulatory properties can mitigate oxidative stress, which is manifested as beneficial changes in the activity of these enzymes.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) belong to a family of nuclear hormone receptors that are activated by fatty acids such as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and/or their derivatives. Three isoforms of PPAR namely α (alpha), β (beta), and γ (gamma) are found to be highly expressed in tissues relevant to energy homeostasis. The PPAR signalling pathway, which is involved in lipid metabolism and storage, play a role in livestock meat quality. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms of PPAR action of fat metabolism may have extensive implications not only in animal biology for health and feed efficiency improvement, but also in molecular nutrition as a potent nutritional supplement in poultry species.

This review article discusses the production results of experiments performed on turkeys, where WG, mainly whole wheat (WW), was incorporated into diets with the use of different methods: i) pre-pelleting inclusion of WG, ii) post-pelleting inclusion of WG with dilution of the daily diet, iii) post-pelleting inclusion of whole grain without dilution of the daily diet and iv) free-choice feeding. The latest experiments conducted between 2012 and 2013 on turkeys fed WW indicated that: (1) pre-pelleting inclusion of 20% WW had no effect on the body weight (BW) of turkeys or feed conversion ratio (FCR), (2) moderate (up to 20% on average) dilution of standard turkey diets with WW had no effect on the final BW of birds or muscle yield, and improved feed utilisation, in particular when WW was fed instead of ground or pelleted grain, (3) post-pelleting inclusion of WG in diets supplemented with protein-mineral-vitamin concentrate allowed to increase the amount of WW up to 25 and 30% in the daily ration in feeding periods of 4-8 and 9-12 weeks, respectively. However, in free-choice feeding, WW can result in poorer growth performance of turkeys due to an inadequate total protein intake.

There is a wide spectrum of techniques available to evaluate the functional aspects of the immune system in both humans and animals, including avian species. Some of the immunological techniques are qualitative and others are quantitative. In this paper, these techniques will be reviewed starting with a description of the nature of the antibody-antigen interaction, followed by the immune techniques that are used to detect immune complexes (i.e. antigen-antibody responses) whether free or associated with cells, then the numerous immune markers or parameters that are used to measure the avian immune responses.

Avian influenza viruses have become endemic in land-based domestic poultry and have crossed species barriers. Turkeys are an important host in influenza virus ecology because they are susceptible to infection with these viruses and are often involved in inter species transmission. Several previous studies reveal that waterfowl-origin influenza viruses can be more easily transmitted to domestic turkeys than to chickens. Studies indicate turkeys to be better hosts for low pathogenic avian influenza viruses isolated from commercial poultry operations and live bird markets in comparison to chickens. Moreover, turkeys require low, 50% infectious-dose titres from wild bird as well as poultry adapted viruses, suggesting their high susceptibility for infection following a low dose exposure. Additionally, interspecies transmission of swine influenza viruses to turkeys occurs frequently, thus turkeys may be considered as a bridge species between poultry and wildlife. These findings suggest that turkeys can be easily infected with influenza viruses of different origins and highlight the potential role of turkeys in the transmission and maintenance of influenza viruses between premises.

A number of studies have indicated that there is a relationship between the colour of pheasant eggshells and their quality, as well as hatchability results. For example, eggs with light coloured shell colour have higher water and cholesterol content than darker eggs. At the same time, blue and light-brown eggs contain more lysozyme in their albumen, compared to the eggs with different shell colours. On comparing the microbiological contamination, it was found that the dark-brown and olive eggs had a similar and higher total bacteria count (TBC) in the shell compared to the blue ones. Similarly, these eggs had lower ergosterol (EGR) content in the shell (indicator of microscopic fungi presence) compared to the eggs of blue colour. Also it was demonstrated that poorer hatchability of fertilised and set eggs with blue shell is the result of factors mentioned earlier. In summary, it appears that, from an economic viewpoint, the start of breeding in ring-necked pheasant should be considered and the eggshell colour should be included in the selection index. In addition, it is worth paying attention to the possibilities of environmental factors and nutritional modification in order to improve hatchability parameters in pheasants.

The eye is a vital sense organ under neuro endocrine regulation in order to allow sight in the bird. It responds to light stimulus and photoperiodicity of the environment of the birds, where they are reared. The effects of photo stimulation are mediated via the various components of the eye. The physiologic roles of avian eyes have been under-utilised in poultry management to enhance production and consequently, economic efficiency of the birds. Regulatory mechanisms of avian eyes’ function, response of components to photo stimulation and utilisation of photoperiod to enhance production in poultry have been reviewed. In conclusion, avian eyes respond to light stimulation and photoperiod, and these responses may be utilised for commercial poultry production in terms of eggs and meat, as well as for improving the welfare of the birds.

The relationship between the use of pesticides and grey partridge poisoning, mainly due to irregular use of rodent baits, is reviewed in the current paper. The aim of this review is to emphasise the existing problem of partridge extinction and how it would impact the agriculture ecology. A drastic decline in the population of Grey Partridge Perdix perdix has been observed in the Republic of Serbia as well as in many other countries, due to intensive agriculture, predominantly caused by the abuse of pesticides. Pathological and toxicological findings indicate poisoning, and this can be confirmed with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Actions such as monitoring and reporting incidents in the future should provide questions of how to improve and implement the established regulations.

Based upon its economical perspective, the phenomenon of forced moulting in the poultry industry has become a common practice to increase the productivity and reproductive life span of birds. Different feed supplements, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics and prebiotics have been extensively used by poultry farmers for many years. In the last decade, researchers have reported advantageous effects of these supplements in improving different health biomarkers of post moult poultry birds. Therefore, including with these supplements in post moult feed is believed to exhibit better results than moulting alone. The current review is aimed at highlighting the empirical data available on the importance of various feed supplements that are considered favourable in ameliorating the health status of moulted poultry birds.

This review discusses various techniques of storage of avian genetic resources. Semen cryopreservation still seems to represent one of the most effective and feasible methods for preservation of genetic resources. Various cryoprotective agents, cooling rates and semen packaging methods are discussed. The use of ovarian tissue, embryonic cells, such as primordial germ cells (PGCs) or blastodermal cells, is the most promising approach because both male and female genetic information can be preserved. A relatively innovative technique; transplantation of cryopreserved testicular cells into adult animals with subsequent production of donor-derived progeny is also mentioned. This transplantation method may contribute to the preservation of endangered avian species and to maintaining their genetic variability.