Music therapy has previously been found to be effective in the treatment of depression but the studies have been methodologically insufficient and lacking in clarity about the clinical model employed.

To determine the efficacy of music therapy added to standard care compared with standard care only in the treatment of depression among working-age people.

Participants (n = 79) with an ICD–10 diagnosis of depression were randomised to receive individual music therapy plus standard care (20 bi-weekly sessions) or standard care only, and followed up at baseline, at 3 months (after intervention) and at 6 months. Clinical measures included depression, anxiety, general functioning, quality of life and alexithymia. Trial registration: ISRCTN84185937.

Participants receiving music therapy plus standard care showed greater improvement than those receiving standard care only in depression symptoms (mean difference 4.65, 95% CI 0.59 to 8.70), anxiety symptoms (1.82, 95% CI 0.09 to 3.55) and general functioning (–4.58, 95% CI −8.93 to −0.24) at 3-month follow-up. The response rate was significantly higher for the music therapy plus standard care group than for the standard care only group (odds ratio 2.96, 95% CI 1.01 to 9.02).

Individual music therapy combined with standard care is effective for depression among working-age people with depression. The results of this study along with the previous research indicate that music therapy with its specific qualities is a valuable enhancement to established treatment practices.

A new actuarial method for violence risk assessment – the Iterative Classification Tree (ICT) – has become available. It has a high degree of accuracy but can be time and resource intensive to administer.

To increase the clinical utility of the ICT method by restricting the risk factors used to generate the actuarial tool to those commonly available in hospital records or capable of being routinely assessed in clinical practice.

A total of 939 male and female civil psychiatric patients between 18 and 40 years old were assessed on 106 risk factors in the hospital and monitored for violence to others during the first 20 weeks after discharge.

The ICT classified 72.6% of the sample as either low risk (less than half of the sample's base rate of violence) or high risk (more than twice the sample's base rate of violence).

A clinically useful actuarial method exists to assist in violence risk assessment.

The two main constituents of cannabis, cannabidiol and δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), have opposing effects both pharmacologically and behaviourally when administered in the laboratory. Street cannabis is known to contain varying levels of each cannabinoid.

To study how the varying levels of cannabidiol and THC have an impact on the acute effects of the drug in naturalistic settings.

Cannabis users (n = 134) were tested 7 days apart on measures of memory and psychotomimetic symptoms, once while they were drug free and once while acutely intoxicated by their own chosen smoked cannabis. Using an unprecedented methodology, a sample of cannabis (as well as saliva) was collected from each user and analysed for levels of cannabinoids. On the basis of highest and lowest cannabidiol content of cannabis, two groups of individuals were directly compared.

Groups did not differ in the THC content of the cannabis they smoked. Unlike the marked impairment in prose recall of individuals who smoked cannabis low in cannabidiol, participants smoking cannabis high in cannabidiol showed no memory impairment. Cannabidiol content did not affect psychotomimetic symptoms, which were elevated in both groups when intoxicated.

The antagonistic effects of cannabidiol at the CB1 receptor are probably responsible for its profile in smoked cannabis, attenuating the memory-impairing effects of THC. In terms of harm reduction, users should be made aware of the higher risk of memory impairment associated with smoking low-cannabidiol strains of cannabis like ‘skunk’ and encouraged to use strains containing higher levels of cannabidiol.

People with social anxiety disorder (SAD) fear social interactions and may be reluctant to seek treatments involving exposure to social situations. Social exposure conducted in virtual reality (VR), embedded in individual cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT), could be an answer.

To show that conducting VR exposure in CBT for SAD is effective and is more practical for therapists than conducting exposure in vivo.

Participants were randomly assigned to either VR exposure (n = 17), in vivo exposure (n = 22) or waiting list (n = 20). Participants in the active arms received individual CBT for 14 weekly sessions and outcome was assessed with questionnaires and a behaviour avoidance test. (Trial registration number ISRCTN99747069.)

Improvements were found on the primary (Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale) and all five secondary outcome measures in both CBT groups compared with the waiting list. Conducting exposure in VR was more effective at post-treatment than in vivo on the primary outcome measure and on one secondary measure. Improvements were maintained at the 6-month follow-up. VR was significantly more practical for therapists than in vivo exposure.

Using VR can be advantageous over standard CBT as a potential solution for treatment avoidance and as an efficient, cost-effective and practical medium of exposure.

The improvement of community tolerance of people with mental illness is important for their integration. Little is known about the knowledge of and attitude to mental illness in sub-Saharan Africa.

To determine the knowledge and attitudes of a representative community sample in Nigeria.

A multistage, clustered sample of household respondents was studied in three states in the Yoruba-speaking parts of Nigeria (representing 22% of the national population). A total of 2040 individuals participated (response rate 74.2%).

Poor knowledge of causation was common. Negative views of mental illness were widespread, with as many as 96.5% (s.d.=0.5) believing that people with mental illness are dangerous because of their violent behaviour. Most would not tolerate even basic social contacts with a mentally ill person: 82.7% (s.e.=1.3) would be afraid to have a conversation with a mentally ill person and only 16.9% (s.e.=0.9) would consider marrying one. Socio-demographic predictors of both poor knowledge and intolerant attitude were generally very few.

There is widespread stigmatisation of mental illness in the Nigerian community. Negative attitudes to mental illness may be fuelled by notions of causation that suggest that affected people are in some way responsible for their illness, and by fear.

In a 10-year follow-up of a survey from Oslo, 503 persons were reinterviewed using the same questionnaire.

The questionnaire includes information about social support, ‘locus of control’ and mental health as well as negative life events and long-lasting mental strain during the year prior to the follow-up.

The study confirms the “buffer hypothesis”, that social support protects against the development of mental disorder only when the individual is exposed to stressors, like negative life events. This buffering effect was especially strong for depression.

The buffering effect only applies to the ‘externals’ –those who have personality-related feelings of powerlessness and lack of control over their own lives. The ‘internals’ do not have the same need for social support to cope with life stressors, and have low symptom scores even when negative life events are combined with relative weak social support.

Some people who take selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants report that their experience of emotions is ‘blunted’. This phenomenon is poorly understood.

To understand patients' experiences of this phenomenon.

Qualitative study, gathering data through individual interviews, a group interview and validation interviews; and searching patient websites for relevant posts.

There was strong evidence that some people taking SSRIs experience significant emotional symptoms that they strongly attribute to their antidepressant. These emotional symptoms can be described within six key themes. A seventh theme represents the impact of these side-effects on everyday life, and an eighth represents participants' reasons for attributing these symptoms to their antidepressant. Most participants felt able to distinguish between emotional side-effects of antidepressants and emotional symptoms of their depression or other illness.

Emotional side-effects of SSRIs are a robust phenomenon, prominent in some people's thoughts about their medication, having a demonstrable impact on their functioning and playing a role in their decision-making about antidepressant adherence.

Community-based epidemiological data on post-partum depression from developing countries are scarce.

To determine the incidence of and risk factors for developing post-partum depression in a cohort of women living in rural south India.

We assessed 359 women in the last trimester of pregnancy and 6–12 weeks after delivery for depression and for putative risk factors.

The incidence of post-partum depression was 11% (95% CI 7.1–14.9). Low income, birth of a daughter when a son was desired, relationship difficulties with mother-in-law and parents, adverse life events during pregnancy and lack of physical help were risk factors for the onset of post-partum depression.

Depression occurred as frequently during late pregnancy and after delivery as in developed countries, but there were cultural differences in risk factors. These findings have implications for policies regarding maternal and child-care programmes.

The impact of clinically diagnosed mental disorders on mortality in the general population has not been established.

To examine mental disorders for their prediction of cause-specific mortality.

Mental disorders were determined using the 36-item version of the General Health Questionnaire and the Present State Examination in a nationally representative sample of 8000 adult Finns.

During the 17-year follow-up period 1597 deaths occurred. The presence of a mental disorder detected at baseline was associated with an elevated mortality rate. The relative risk in men was 1.6 (95% confidence interval 1.3–1.8) and in women, 1.4 (95% Cl 1.2–1.6). In men and women with schizophrenia the relative risks of death during the follow-up period were 3.3 (95% Cl 2.3–4.9) and 2.3 (95% Cl 1.3–3.8) respectively, compared with the rest of the sample. In both men and women with schizophrenia the risk of dying of respiratory disease was increased, but the risk of dying of cardiovascular disease was increased only in men with neurotic depression.

Schizophrenia and depression are associated with an elevated risk of natural and unnatural deaths.

Major depression in childhood or adolescence increases the risk of affective disorder in adulthood. The precise nature and course of the subsequent disorder remain unclear.

To investigate long-term psychiatric outcome of school-age depression in community and clinic samples.

A group of 113 young adults were followed up after a mean of 7.8 years (s.e.=15).

Groups with persistent and recurrent depression were identified. Recurrence of affective disorder was similar in clinic and community groups. The clinic group had significantly longer index episodes; these were predicted by an early psychiatric history, longer episode duration before treatment and greater impairment. Being female, having higher self-report depression scores and comorbidity at index episode predicted earlier recurrence. Males were more likely to have persistent depression.

Prognosis is similar in young people with depression from community and clinical samples. Boys from a clinical sample are at higher risk than girls of becoming persistently and severely mentally ill.

The reported link between psychological trauma and onset of psychosis remains controversial.

To examine associations between self-reported psychological trauma and psychotic symptoms as a function of prior evidence of vulnerability to psychosis (psychosis proneness).

At baseline, 2524 adolescents aged 14–24 years provided self-reports on psychological trauma and psychosis proneness, and at follow-up (on average 42 months later) participants were interviewed for presence of psychotic symptoms.

Self-reported trauma was associated with psychotic symptoms, in particular at more severe levels (adjusted OR 1.89, 95% CI 1.16–3.08) and following trauma associated with intense fear, helplessness or horror. The risk difference between those with and without self-reported trauma at baseline was 7% in the group with baseline psychosis proneness, but only 1.8% in those without (adjusted test for difference between these two effect sizes: χ2=4.6, P=0.032).

Exposure to psychological trauma may increase the risk of psychotic symptoms in people vulnerable to psychosis.

Actuarial risk assessment instruments (ARAIs) estimate the probability that individuals will engage in future violence.

To evaluate the ‘margins of error’ at the group and individual level for risk estimates made using ARAIs.

An established statistical method was used to construct 95% CI for group and individual risk estimates made using two popular ARAIs.

The 95% CI were large for risk estimates at the group level; at the individual level, they were so high as to render risk estimates virtually meaningless.

The ARAIs cannot be used to estimate an individual's risk for future violence with any reasonable degree of certainty and should be used with great caution or not at all. In theory, reasonably precise group estimates could be made using ARAIs if developers used very large construction samples and if the tests included few score categories with extreme risk estimates.