‘Natural’ is a popular food marketing term. Although it is not well-defined, it refers primarily to inputs used for food processing, rather than agricultural practices. Given the market success of organic and non-GMO labeled foods, other agricultural practices may have the potential to develop ‘natural’ market niches while also addressing sustainability goals. We assessed perceptions of natural for one specific set of agricultural practices, bird management methods in fruit crops, utilizing a series of four focus groups. In addition, we quantified consumer preferences for these methods with a national online survey (n = 1000). The most positively received methods, falconry and nest boxes, were typically described as more natural. Conversely, the most negatively received methods, live ammunition and methyl anthranilate spray, were frequently viewed as less natural. The majority of survey respondents indicated that controlling fruit-consuming birds with natural practices was important, but an even higher percentage deemed avoiding harms to personal health as important. Because falconry and nest boxes do not have perceived direct effects on human health, they are likely to have less market potential than more established ecolabels. Communicating the use of these practices to consumers, however, may result in consumers selecting them over other products, particularly if the associated price premiums are relatively modest.

Despite the heightened efforts to implement eco-labeling schemes as the market-based vehicle for improving environmental quality, the overall effectiveness of eco-labels are still uncertain due to complex and sometimes unexpected market responses. In this paper, we assess the overall changes in carbon emissions resulting from two types of labeling on fresh apples, carbon labels and location designation labels (e.g., locally grown), both of which can have mixed implications for carbon emissions due to fluctuating supply chain factors. We employ an equilibrium displacement model that integrates existing estimates of differences across production systems, and our own estimates of consumer responses to labels in order to simulate the changes in prices, trade flows and estimate carbon impacts across several scenarios in the US fresh apple market. We find that both labels ultimately affect market outcomes and overall carbon emissions. With location designation labels, consumers’ preference for local products leads to a net decrease in carbon emissions during the local growing season, while the interaction of various market dynamics results in a subsequent net increase in carbon emissions during the local off-season. The interaction of a carbon label with the location label lowers the overall attractiveness of products and reduces the quantity demanded, and thus, reduces the carbon emissions in both seasons. Overall, providing the location designation label increases annual carbon emissions, whereas providing both the location designation and carbon labeling decreases annual emissions. In short, the dynamics and interdependency of labeling strategies are important to consider in the context of eco-labeling.

Cover crop mulches have been successful in reducing weed severity in organic soybeans. This study examined six rye cultivars (SRCs) used as cover crops to determine which were most adapted for use with a roller–crimper in the southeastern U.S. To be an effective mulch, a rye cultivar must produce high biomass and reach reproductive growth stage to facilitate mechanical termination via the roller–crimper prior to soybean planting. Rye cultivars were planted at three locations in North Carolina over the 2009 and 2010 growing seasons. Each rye cultivar was mechanically terminated via a roller–crimper implement. Rye cover crops were terminated on two dates and soybeans were immediately no-till planted into the mulch. In 2009, all rye cultivars produced greater than 9000 kg ha−1 rye biomass dry matter (DM) with the exception of Rymin at Plymouth (2009), but in 2010 only the early flowering cultivars produced in excess of 9000 kg ha−1 DM. There were no detectable soybean yield differences between the SRCs and the weed-free checks, and weed control was excellent across all SRCs at both Plymouth and Salisbury (2009). After an unseasonably cold and wet winter in 2010, the late flowering rye cultivars were not fully controlled by the early termination date due to delayed maturation (less than 65% control at 2 WAP) whereas the early flowering cultivars were fully controlled (100% control at 2 WAP). Rye biomass production was below 9000 kg ha−1 DM for the late flowering and dough development rye cultivars. The early-terminated rye plots had greater weed coverage across all SRCs than those from the late termination date (P < 0.01). However, weeds did not impact soybean yield for either of the termination dates. Soybean yield in 2010 was modeled with rye biomass and soybean population used as covariates, and for both termination dates, soybean yield was proportional to rye biomass production. Early flowering rye cultivars offer producers the widest range of termination opportunities that best coincide with their cash crop planting dates.

Several approaches can be used to terminate legume cover crops in the spring prior to planting summer crops, but the effect that these methods have on decomposition and nitrogen (N) release dynamics of legume cover-crop roots is poorly understood. The main objectives of this study were to: (i) quantify decomposition and N release of roots from pea (Pisum sativum), clover (Trifolium incarnatum) and vetch (Vicia villosa Roth); (ii) determine if roots decompose and release N faster when cover crops are terminated by disking compared with roller-crimping; and (iii) determine if roots decompose and release N faster under higher soil inorganic N levels. Two field experiments were conducted in Goldsboro and Kinston, North Carolina in the summer of 2012. Cover crops at these sites were terminated in spring by disking or roller-crimping and planted to unirrigated corn. Air-dried roots placed in litterbags were buried in their corresponding cover-crop plots and in plots where cover crops had not been grown that had either synthetic N fertilizer added at burial or had no fertilizer addition. Root litterbags were collected over 16 weeks at both sites. Cover-crop plots terminated by disking had up to 117 and 49% higher soil inorganic N than roller-crimped plots in Goldsboro and Kinston, respectively. However, roots did not appear to contribute significantly to these increases, as measured root decomposition and N release was not affected by termination approach at either site. Roots decomposed rapidly at both sites, losing up to 65% of their original biomass within 4 weeks after burial. Root N release was also rapid at both sites, with vetch generally releasing N fastest and clover slowest. It was estimated that cover-crop roots supplied 47–62 and 19–33 kg N ha−1 during the corn cycle in Goldsboro and Kinston, respectively. Our results indicate that under the warm, humid summer conditions of the Southeastern USA, legume cover-crop roots decompose and release N rapidly.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the formation of hotspots of organic operations (geographically close areas that have positively correlated high numbers of organic operations), paying particular attention to the role of the organic certifying agent. We analyze the association of county-level factors related to policy, economics, demographics and organic certifiers with the probability that a county is in a hotspot or coldspot (geographically close areas that have positively correlated low numbers of organic operations) of organic operations. The results suggest that a high presence of government run organic certifying agents, as well as a high presence of private organic certifying agents who provide outreach services, are both positively associated with the probability that a county belongs to a hotspot. Other factors, such as the level of property taxes and the distance of the county from the nearest interstate, are also significantly correlated with the probability that a county is in a hotspot. Understanding factors associated with organic hotspots is important given the surge in momentum in the organic industry and the concerns that demand for organic products may be outpacing domestic supply. In particular, understanding the role that certifiers play in the formation of organic hotspots is important, as certain services provided by certifiers may be indicative of the level of communication between organic operations and their communities. The results of this paper may encourage public institutions that approve and regulate organic certifiers to provide incentives for offering outreach services, and private institutions interested in promoting organic operations to work more closely with certifying agents as a means to boost organic hotspots.

Documentation of on-farm sustainability in agricultural sectors is becoming an essential element to ensure market access. An assessment process was developed to help soybean farmers document practices and verifiable advances in community, environmental and economic sustainability. Technical difficulties in analyzing and summarizing such assessment data include a large number of practices, correlation in variables, and use of discrete measures. By combining non-negative principal components analysis and common-weight data envelopment analysis, we overcame these difficulties to calculate a composite sustainability index for each individual farm and for the farm group as a whole. Applying this method to assessment data from 410 US Midwestern soybean farmers gave average sustainability scores of 0.846 and 0.842 for the soybean-specific and whole-farm assessments, respectively. Scenario analysis examined the impact if the bottom 10% of growers adopted the top ten sustainability drivers identified by the analysis. The average sustainability score only increased by 2%, but the minimum score increased from 0.515 to 0.647 for the soybean-specific assessment, and from 0.624 to 0.685 for the whole-farm assessment, while the lowest 10th percentile increased from 0.635 to 0.819 for the soybean-specific assessment, and from 0.634 to 0.920 for the whole-farm assessment. These results suggest that significant advancements could be made through focused efforts to improve adoption of sustainable practices by soybean farmers at the lower end of the spectrum.

With the rapid growth of farmers’ markets, roadside stands and U-pick operations in the USA, direct food distribution to consumers has become more important for agricultural producers. However, numerous studies have revealed that there are barriers preventing further development of these markets. One of the most often cited barriers is lack of access for consumers. This raises the question: to what extent does accessibility affect consumers’ participation in this food marketing channel? Based on data from a public mail survey, a binary probit model was developed to test whether the ease of access to farmers' markets would affect consumers’ participation decisions. The model included other control variables such as spatial accessibility to other traditional food retail stores, consumer demographics and perceptions of locally produced foods. The results showed that each additional farmers' market within a 5 km radius of the household significantly increased the expected probability of participation by 3.67%, and the effect varied with urban and rural areas. The presence of grocery stores, convenience stores and specialty food stores were statistically insignificant. Also, some demographic characteristics such as age, household income and household size, along with attitudes toward local foods, were found to be significant predictors of consumers’ behavior. Finally, we provide a number of implications for improving market locations, targeting interested consumers and developing strategies to promote farmers' markets.

Since 2009 the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) has funded over 2600 local food initiatives. However, the economic impacts of these policies remain unclear largely due to data deficiencies that preclude the understanding of differential expenditure patterns of farms participating in these local market channels (both in terms of what inputs they require, and where the inputs are purchased—local or not). This paper utilizes two unique data sets from samples of producers in New York State (NYS) to build expenditure profiles for local food system participants. We employ USDA Agricultural Resource Management Survey data as a robustness check on our results. The primary contribution of this paper is to provide preliminary evidence that local food system participants in NYS have different expenditure patterns than farmers who do not sell through local food markets. We show that farmers with local food sales have higher reliance on local labor and other variable expenses as primary inputs than farms without local food sales, and that local food producers spend a higher percentage of total expenditure in the local economy. Based on our results, we recommend that future economic impact assessments utilize revised expenditure profiles that more accurately reflect inter-industry linkages of the local food sector.

Despite the economic benefits of organic farming, the conversion rates to this production method are low. The reasons for this reluctance are largely unknown; however, understanding this behavior is important for policy recommendations. Therefore, we experimentally investigate and compare the investment behavior of organic and conventional hog farmers. We examine whether the investment behavior depends on the organic or conventional farmers’ status quo of their production method. Our results show that farmers are more reluctant to invest in production methods they are not currently using compared with those already in use on their farm. Conventional, more risk-averse farmers, and those farmers holding a university degree, invest later in a hog barn. The results provide evidence that investment decisions depend on the status quo production method of a farmer and, thus, reveal that current subsidy structures may be ineffective in encouraging farmers to invest in production methods they are not currently using on their farms.

In Tanzania, as in many developing countries, cotton is an important source of income for smallholder farmers but also causes various negative effects through high pesticide and intensive land use. To overcome these effects organic agriculture is promoted by different non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and companies. This study examines how organic cotton cultivation influences the livelihood of smallholder farmers in rural Tanzania and focuses on three areas: (1) the motivation to change from conventional to organic farming, (2) experiences and challenges of farmers in the conversion process as well as in the period following the conversion, and (3) the attitude and perceptions of farmers toward organic farming in general. Qualitative interviews with organic farmers in Meatu district in the north of Tanzania, as well as expert interviews, were conducted and observations were made. Results show that although the organic price premium is an important incentive for farmers to convert to organic agriculture, access to training and advisory service are even more important, as no other sufficient agriculture extension service is available in the region. Due to a high level of poverty in the region, environmental motivations for conversion are not in the foreground. Furthermore, the study shows that organic farming can contribute greatly to the improvement of livelihoods in the region (improved soil fertility, increased yields and income, higher standard of living) and increases farmers’ ability to cope with challenges, mainly through knowledge transfer, access to capital and capacity building on a local level. Although positive effects on female farmers were identified, cultural preconditions (e.g., polygamy) harm efforts to strengthen women to a higher degree and gender disparities are still challenging. Further social problems (i.e., high birth rates, a poor education system and a lack of health care), global trading schemes as well as environmental factors (i.e., water scarcity and extreme weather events) cannot be fully offset by the conversion to organic cotton cultivation. Farmers in the Meatu region profit to a high degree from organic agriculture, mainly due to access to knowledge and extension services, nevertheless important challenges remain for farmers and their families.

Organic agriculture has the potential to provide improved livelihood opportunities, increased income and social benefits for resource-poor small-scale farmers. It has thus become a popular strategy for economic development and poverty reduction in many areas of the global south. However, there has been limited empirical research regarding the actual benefits of certified organic production, particularly when organic is combined with fair trade certification, and for small-scale farmers who are not engaged in coffee or banana production. Further research is needed to demonstrate experiences of farmers under diverse socioeconomic conditions, organizational contexts and degrees of market access. To address these gaps, two surveys of certified organic and fair trade tea producers in China and Sri Lanka were undertaken to investigate the contributions of organic crops to the household economy. In both cases, organic production required lower investment in terms of external inputs but a higher input of farmers’ labor. The price premium received by farmers for the organic tea compensated for the extra labor input and lower yield, resulting in a net profit. However, given the relatively small plots of tea gardens of each household, organic production could not fully provide for the households’ livelihood. Non-farm income dominated the total income of the households across the study cases, despite the earnings from organic farming. In both sites, market-oriented organic tea projects have created more options for paid work locally, which benefits women of reproductive age. Social benefits of organic farming were also reported. Pursuing fair trade certification on top of organic production facilitated farmer organizing, training and community development. Organic agriculture and fair trade certification offer important prospects to improve the livelihoods of small-scale farmers in other, less favored areas of Asia. These forms of certified production could provide economic and social benefits in instances where farm income is the main source of household income.

This paper presents an assessment of the surplus grass production in the Region of Southern Denmark, and the perspectives of utilizing it in local biogas production. Grass production represents a significant role in the Danish agricultural sector. However, statistical data show an excess production of averagely 12% in the period 2006–2012. Based on spatial analyses and statistical data, the geographical distribution of grass production and consumption was estimated and mapped for the Region of Southern Denmark. An excess production of grass was estimated for several of the municipalities in the Region of Southern Denmark, but the excess production was found to be quite sensitive to the management practice of the grass fields and the productivity of the grass. The yields of excess grass estimated in the sensitive and conservative scenario were found to be sufficient to serve a sole co-substrate in 2–8 biogas plants using animal manure as primary feedstock. The yields in the intensive scenario were assessed to be sufficient to serve a sole co-substrate in 8–16 biogas plants. Alternatively, at least 31% of the regionally produced maize which is exported to the biogas sector could annually be substituted by methane produced from the production of excess grass. The intensive scenario was estimated to have significantly higher grass yields than the sensitive and conservative scenario. The environmental impacts of intensified agricultural management should, however, be assessed carefully in order to ensure that the ecosystems are not increasingly being burdened. The potential of utilizing residual grass for energy production in the region or as an alternative to the maize exported to Northern Germany, was concluded to seem as a promising possibility for a sustainable development of the regional biogas sector. Furthermore, it could provide incentives for establishing new biogas plants in the region and thereby increase the share of manure being digested anaerobically, which could help extrapolate the environmental and climate related benefits documented for the use of digested animal manure as fertilizer on agricultural land.

Transformations of the agricultural systems have been taking place in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. In different settings, farmers have become involved in massive shrimp cultivation, shrimp–rice cultivation, rice-based improved agricultural systems or shrimp–rice–vegetable-integrated systems. The long-term livelihood, food security and adaptation of the coastal people largely depend on the sustainability of these agricultural practices. In this context, assessing the level of sustainability is extremely important. The present study attempts to examine the sustainability of agricultural practices in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. A field study was carried out in five upazilas (counties) in the coastal zone. The data were collected through in-depth questionnaire surveys, focus groups discussions, field observation, key informants and secondary materials. A comprehensive suite of indicators was developed considering productivity, efficiency, stability, durability, compatibility and equity related to the coastal agriculture. The categories and the indicators were aggregated using Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis to measure the sustainability level of five study sites. The integrated agricultural system (shrimp–rice–vegetables) of Dumuria appeared to be the most sustainable system among agricultural practices, and other integrated systems (rice-based) of Kalaroa were also found to show a good level of sustainability. The massive shrimp cultivation system of Shyamnagar and Kaliganj appears to be the least sustainable. A traditional agriculture system with some improved methods followed in Bhola Sadar also performed in a satisfactory manner. Measuring agricultural sustainability in this way produces a useful summary of sustainability issues. The information generated from the study may be used in formulating policies for this part of the country. The holistic and interdisciplinary approach employed here has the potential to a useful framework for sustainability assessment.

Rapid changes in agricultural systems call for profound changes in agricultural research and extension practices. The Diagnosis, Design, Assessment, Training and Extension (DATE) approach was developed and applied to co-design Conservation Agriculture-based cropping systems in contrasted situations. DATE is a multi-scale, multi-stakeholder participatory approach that integrates scientific and local knowledge. It emerged in response to questions raised by and issues encountered in the design of innovative systems. A key feature of this approach is the high input of innovative systems which are often although not exclusively based on conservation agricultural practices. Prototyping of innovative cropping systems (ICSs) largely relies on a conceptual model of soil–plant–macrofauna–microorganism system functioning. By comparing the implementation of the DATE approach and conservation agriculture-based cropping systems in Madagascar, Lao PDR, and Cambodia, we show that: (i) the DATE approach is flexible enough to be adapted to local conditions; (ii) market conditions need to be taken into account in designing agricultural development scenarios; and (iii) the learning process during the transition to conservation agriculture requires time. The DATE approach not only enables the co-design of ICSs with farmers, but also incorporates training and extension dimensions. It feeds back practitioners’ questions to researchers, and provides a renewed and extended source of innovation to farmers.

Allotment food gardens represent important sources of food security for urban residents. Since urban gardeners rarely receive formal agricultural education and have extremely limited space, they may be relying on readily available gardening advice (e.g., seed packet instructions), inventing cultural strategies that consider inter-specific competitive dynamics, or making poor planting decisions. Knowledge of garden crop diversity and planting arrangements can aid in designing strategies for productive urban gardens and food systems. We surveyed 96 individual plots in 10 allotment gardens in the Toronto region, assessed crop diversity within gardens and recorded planting practices used by urban gardeners by measuring the proximity of individual plants relative to similar or different crop species. We also compared planting densities used by urban gardeners with those recommended by major seed distributers. Collectively, Toronto urban agriculture contributes substantially to urban plant diversity (108 crops), but each plot tends to be relatively depauperate. Carrots and lettuce were three to five times more likely to be planted in clusters than intermingled with other crops (P < 0.05); whereas gardeners did not appear to use consistent planting arrangements for tomatoes or zucchini. Gardeners tended to plant tomatoes and zucchini 56–62.5% more densely than recommended by seed distributers (P < 0.001), whereas they planted 147 times fewer carrots in a given area than recommended (P < 0.05). Furthermore, neither crop planting density nor crop diversity changed with plot size. The planting arrangements we have documented suggest gardeners using allotment plots attempt plant densely in extremely limited space, and are employing cultural strategies that intensify competitive dynamics within gardens. Future research should assess the absolute and relative effect of altered cultural practices on yield, such that any modifications can be prioritized by their impact on yield.

Through the process of globalization, food has experienced an intense territorial restructuring process. Local agric-food links have weakened at the same time as daily products arrived from distant lands. There is presently a wide international debate on the importance of transport in the configuration of the agric-food system and its contribution in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG). The direct environmental costs of the transport of imported food, that is the ‘external food miles’, have been estimated in kilometer (km), ton (t), ton-kilometer (t-km) and GHG in Spain between 1995 and 2011. The analysis is made by ten food groups including 136 products, with special attention to the most important ones (cereals and animal feed), as well as by means of transport (air, rail, road and water) and from 113 different countries belonging to six geographical areas. Two phases are identified during this period: an expansive phase (1995–2007), in which the t-km of imported food increased from 81.8 to 147.8 million t-km and environmental pressure rose from 3.1 to 5.4 million CO2-eq t, and a recession phase (2007–2011), in which environmental pressure subsided as a consequence of the reduction of imports, even though it still remained above the 1995 level. The article reveals a clear interrelation between amounts, distances and modal distribution when it comes to determining the environmental cost of transporting food imports in the two periods studied. It also reflects on the role of the external food miles in the Spanish agri-food system from a sustainability perspective.

Organic producers are interested in developing a no-till system for crop production. In this study, we examined management tactics to convert perennial legumes to annual crops without tillage. Our hypothesis was that reducing carbohydrate production in the fall by mowing would favor winterkill. Mowing treatments were imposed in the fall of the third year of alfalfa or red clover, and corn planted in year 4. The conventional practice of tillage to convert legumes to cropland was also included as a treatment. Mowing in autumn reduced red clover biomass 93% compared with alfalfa when measured 3 weeks after corn planting (WAP). Red clover biomass was still 75% less than alfalfa 6 WAP. Fall mowing suppressed red clover sufficiently to enable corn seedlings to establish, but corn seedlings did not survive in mowed alfalfa due to alfalfa competition. Corn grain yield following red clover was similar in the mowed and tilled treatments when weeds were present. Late season clover and weed growth reduced corn yields 46% compared with weed-free corn. Weed emergence in corn was three times higher after tillage compared with the mowed treatment. Converting red clover to annual crops with fall mowing will support a no-till system for organic farming.

This study evaluated the effects of organic agriculture manuring systems on carrot (Daucus carota) root morphology and sugar and polyacetylene content. Carrots were harvested three times per season 2006–2007 in a long-term field experiment at Skilleby research farm, Sweden. The effects of pelleted chicken manure, fresh farmyard manure and composted farmyard manure (COM) were compared against control plots left unmanured since the field experiment started in 1991. The carrots were analyzed for root size, root shape, amount of soluble sugars and amount of falcarinol-type polyacetylenes. Differences between manuring systems were found to be smaller than the variation between harvest years and harvest occasions, probably due to the grass-clover ley included in the crop rotation system. On an average for the six harvests, manuring with COM increased root length by 6% compared with fertilizing with pelleted chicken manure. Carrots fertilized with pelleted chicken manure also had 6–7% lower total soluble sugar content than carrots manured with 50 t ha−1 of composted or fresh manure. The falcarinol to total falcarinol-type polyacetylenes ratio was 15.4% in carrots manured with 50 t ha−1 of composted or fresh manure and 14.7% in carrots fertilized with pelleted chicken manure. Seasonal fluctuations in falcarinol-type polyacetylenes were more pronounced in carrots manured with fresh or composted manure than in carrots fertilized with pelleted chicken manure. The results suggest that manuring organic carrots with compost may be the most beneficial strategy, at least in systems where fertilizer is applied only once per crop rotation, whether directly to the carrot crop or in the preceding crop.

Sophisticated capital intensive waste-recycling technologies are unviable in small rural abattoirs in India due to low volume of wastes (principally blood and rumen digesta) generated and lack of infrastructural facilities. We report recycling of slaughterhouse wastes as an organic fertilizer, ‘bovine-blood-rumen-digesta-mixture’ (BBRDM). Bovine blood and rumen digesta were mixed in 3:1 ratio in a metallic container, boiled and stirred continuously till the mixture was largely free of water. The mass was sun-dried for 3 days to obtain the final product. BBRDM was applied for field cultivation of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L., local variety ‘Patharkuchi’) in West Bengal state (India) during 2012–13 and 2013–14. We compared tomato yields obtained with BBRDM (N:P2O5:K2O 30.36:1:5.75) and conventional inorganic fertilizers [diammonium phosphate (DAP), N:P2O5:K2O 18:46:0 + potash, N:P2O5:K2O 0:0:44]. BBRDM was applied at a higher rate compared with DAP + potash to meet the farmers’ desire for enhanced yields. 75 kg ha−1 was applied at the 2nd week while 150 kg ha−1 was applied at the 8th week after transplantation. Yields (total fruit weight) obtained from BBRDM-treated plants were higher in comparison with DAP + potash-fertilized plants by 46–48% as the former supplied 2.5 times more nitrogen (N) than the latter. The partial factor productivity of DAP + potash was 73–76% higher than BBRDM. Conversely, as BBRDM was produced through local entrepreneurship from slaughterhouse wastes, the cost of this organic product would be expected to be much lower than the commercial inorganic fertilizer. Furthermore, application of BBRDM negates the environmental cost of treating slaughterhouse effluent. Considering the same cost of applying 225 kg fertilizer ha−1, higher yield with BBRDM should result in greater potential revenue for the farmer compared with yields with DAP + potash. The C/N ratio of BBRDM is 4.8, having relatively high N content. Accordingly, rapid release of plant-available N was observed in BBRDM-fertilized soils. The temporal increase in soil NH4+may be attributed to lack of soil N immobilization. Local farmers are willing to accept the new fertilizer as a substitute for currently used chemical fertilizers.

The dynamic model Nitrogen Dynamics in Crop rotations in Ecological Agriculture (NDICEA) was used to assess the nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) balance of long-term organic cropping trials and typical organic crop rotations on a range of soil types and rainfall zones in the UK. The measurements of soil N taken at each of the organic trial sites were also used to assess the performance of NDICEA. The modeled outputs compared well to recorded soil N levels, with relatively small error margins. NDICEA therefore seems to be a useful tool for UK organic farmers. The modeling of typical organic rotations has shown that positive N balances can be achieved, although negative N balances can occur under high rainfall conditions and on lighter soil types as a result of leaching. The analysis and modeling also showed that some organic cropping systems rely on imported sources of P and K to maintain an adequate balance and large deficits of both nutrients are apparent in stockless systems. Although the K deficits could be addressed through the buffering capacity of minerals, the amount available for crop uptake will depend on the type and amount of minerals present, current cropping and fertilization practices and the climatic environment. A P deficit represents a more fundamental problem for the maintenance of crop yields and the organic sector currently relies on mined sources of P which represents a fundamental conflict with the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements organic principles.