Determining an effective approach to replacing chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer is a difficult challenge for the Chinese government. This paper constructs a dynamic analysis framework with broader application than previous statistical and case studies by theoretically deriving the impact of farmers' participation in contract farming on their organic fertilizer application behavior. The framework analyzes farmers' intertemporal organic fertilizer application behavior under the two scenarios of participation and nonparticipation in contract farming. Participation in contract farming positively impacts organic fertilizer application behavior in both the short and long terms. Survey data from 473 vegetable farmers in Shandong province of China were used to conduct an empirical analysis, and the endogenous switching probit model was used to solve the endogeneity problem of farmers' participation in contract farming. The empirical analysis supports the above results: farmers' participation in contract farming increases their probability of applying organic fertilizer by 50.7%. Robustness tests conducted using the recursive bivariate probit model and replacing the dependent variable (the intensity with which farmers replace chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer) confirm the research results. Further heterogeneity analysis shows that farmers' participation in contract farming has a more obvious promoting effect on organic fertilizer application behavior in the older group, the group with an education level of primary school or below and the small-scale farming group. Therefore, the government should promote participation in contract farming, especially among elderly, low-education and small-scale farmers, to improve the adoption level of organic fertilizer in China.

A study was conducted on the spatial dimension of crop diversity in Jutpani Village Development Committee (VDC) in central Nepal. Many crop diversity studies focus only on home gardens, but this study aimed to investigate the crop diversity among different production systems, and the factors affecting variations in the crop diversity on a household level. A survey of inter-household variation in cultivated crop diversity in different land-use types among 134 households indicates that 96 different types of annual crops, perennial crops and fruit trees are cultivated. Individual farms cultivated an average of 26 different crops, with this number ranging from 11 to 45. Crops were used as food by the households and, based on their adaptive characters, they were grown either in home gardens or in upland, Tandikhet and lowland. Research showed that home gardens have the highest crop diversity (a total of 78 different crops grown) compared to upland, Tandikhet and lowland. Statistical analysis to understand the factors affecting the variation in crop diversity in the household level showed that the total number of crops grown (crop diversity) on a farm is significantly higher (P<0.001) in the Indo-Aryan ethnic group compared to the Tibeto-Burman group. Farmers with three different production domains maintained higher (P<0.001) crop diversity compared to having only one or two production domains. Poor farmers with small land holdings were associated with higher crop diversity (P<0.001) compared to rich farmers with large land holdings. Therefore, planning for agrobiodiversity management should focus on the production systems, and social and economic settings within the farming community.

In Sehoul, Morocco, the use of marginal land for agriculture became a necessity for the local population due to increased poverty and the occupation of the best land by new owners. Desertification poses an additional threat to agricultural production on marginal slopes, which are often stony and degraded. In a participatory process embedded in the EU DESIRE research project, potential sustainable land management measures were selected to address land degradation and desertification. Promising experiences with no-tillage practices elsewhere in Morocco had motivated the Moroccan government to promote conservation agriculture throughout the country. This combination of crop rotation, minimal soil disturbance and soil cover maintenance, however, had not yet been tested on sloping degraded land. Field trials of grazing enclosure combined with no or minimum tillage were conducted on the plots of two farmers, and trial results were analyzed based on stakeholders’ criteria. Results suggest that increased soil cover with barley residues improved rainwater use efficiency and yields only slightly, although soil water was generally enhanced. Soil moisture measurements revealed that no-tillage was favorable mainly at soil depths of 5 cm and in connection with low-rainfall events (<20 mm); under these circumstances, moisture content was generally higher under no-tillage than under conventional tillage. Moreover, stakeholder discussion confirmed that farmers in Sehoul remain primarily interested in animal husbandry and are reluctant to change the current grazing system. Implementation of conservation agriculture is thus challenged both by the degraded, sloping and stony nature of the land, and by the socio-economic circumstances in Sehoul.

Deep placement of briquette urea (BU) is environmentally friendly and promotes for better nitrogen use efficiency. Nonetheless, its farm-level adoption is low. This paper contributes to the existing literature on climate-smart technology adoption by examining the factors that affect the BU adoption decision using the national representative Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey (BIHS-15) dataset consisting of 3384 rice farmers in Bangladesh. BU adoption probability is higher for farms that specialize in rice production, have more assets, use mobile phones for farming and have better access to extension services. Also, empowered women have a higher propensity to adopt BU. However, living in the feed the future zone decreases adoption probability. BU adoption probability is inversely correlated with rainfall and salinity vulnerability, while the opposite is observed for cyclone and drought vulnerability. Compared to the prilled urea (PU) users, the BU adopters applied a significantly lower amount of urea. The adopters produce more and have a relatively higher return, though the differences are insignificant. The relatively high price of BU compared to PU and the associated high labor requirement dampers the benefit of adopting the technology. Reallocation of subsidies from PU toward BU could be an effective way of promoting BU technology.

One challenge for the environmental assessment of agricultural systems is to progress from estimating whether one farming system has fewer impacts than another to estimating whether or not it can be considered environmentally sustainable. To this end, we developed reference values (RVs) of farm emissions or energy use per hectare that defined hypothetical sustainability thresholds in each of three impact categories: climate change, water-quality degradation and non-renewable energy use. We applied one RV per category to the potential impacts (estimated by life-cycle assessment) of 45 French dairy farms to identify farms below RVs in each impact category and then evaluated their management and production characteristics. Seventeen of the 45 farms lie below at least one of the three RVs. Groups of farms below RVs had a higher percentage of organic farms, larger mean usable agricultural area, longer mean pasture residence time and lower mean inputs of concentrate feed and nitrogen than those above the same RVs. In consequence, the groups below RVs also tended to have lower mean milk production per cow and per hectare. All milk production systems can move toward environmental sustainability even though, according to production mode and intensity, some potential impacts are easier to reduce than others. Most farms were unable to attain the lowest RVs, suggesting that policy-makers may need to consider less ambitious RVs for existing agricultural systems. Otherwise, the distance between normative RVs and indicator values of dairy farms suggest that production and consumption of agricultural products will need to change if sustainability goals do not.

Agri-environmental schemes involving organic farming or set-aside management aim at promoting biodiversity and restoring ecosystem functioning in agrarian landscapes. Application of pesticides in these crop fields is strongly regulated facilitating the spread of weeds but also allowing for the establishment of endangered herbs and a variety of animals. Recent studies found gastropods and earthworms to be legitimate dispersers of seeds of wild plants. We assumed that both groups also play a significant role in the spread and establishment of wild plants within crop fields. Therefore, we are conducting a series of experiments in three different study systems on (1) the role of earthworms and gastropods as dispersers of rare herbs and weeds in an organic rye field in Germany, (2) the seed feeding behavior of gastropods of plants sown in fallow ground in Switzerland, and (3) weed dispersal in irrigated rice fields by golden apple snails in the Philippines.

The Fertile Crescent encompasses a mega-center of diversity of crops and livestock of global importance. The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) coordinated a 5-year regional project funded by the Global Environment Facility to promote in situ conservation of dryland agrobiodiversity in Jordan, Lebanon, the Palestinian Authority and Syria. The project focused on conserving landraces and wild relatives of Allium, Vicia, Trifolium, Medicago and Lathyrus spp. and barley, wheat, lentil and dryland fruit trees (olive, prune, pear, pistachio, almond, cherry and apricot). ICARDA and national programs assessed the status and importance of local agrobiodiversity by surveying 570 farm households in the project target areas including the characterization of their livelihood strategies, agrobiodiversity use and household income sources. A wealth index was created considering human, natural, financial, physical and social assets and was used to classify households into four wealth quartiles. The results indicated that agriculture and agrobiodiversity continue to be important for supporting the livelihoods of poor communities in dry and mountainous regions. The poorest households obtained their income from diverse sources including crop production, off-farm labor and government employment. However, households in the highest wealth grouping are mainly dependent on income from selling livestock products and live animals. They also practiced crop production, worked off-farm and took advantage of government employment. Off-farm income was important for livelihoods in all areas, representing 43–68% of household incomes. For all groups, fruit trees were generally more important than field crops for income generation, mainly in mountainous areas. The finding of this study showed that all farmers’ groups contribute greatly to on-farm conservation of landraces, with a bigger role for poor farmers in conserving the landraces of fruit trees. Diversification of income and farming systems to include livestock, field crops and fruit trees along with off-farm activities are contributing to the conservation of agrobiodiversity in these marginal environments. Several opportunities for income increase and diversification through add-value activities and alternative sources of income are demonstrated to the custodians of dryland agrobiodiversity. Their benefits can contribute to the sustainability of agrobiodiversity conservation, provided that marketing of local products can be enhanced.

Experimental findings on rotational grazing (RG) trials have generally differed from producer observations of RG outcomes on commercial scale ranches. Factors such as small plot size, short duration trials and relatively rigid grazing management that lacks responsiveness to the dynamic and complex social-ecological systems in grazing trials could all contribute to this disparity in outcomes. These differences call for a better understanding of producer perceptions of RG benefits. To fill this knowledge gap, we surveyed 4500 producers from the Northern and Southern Great Plains of the USA. Among the 875 respondents, 40.5% reported that they used continuous grazing (CG), 52.7% implemented RG management in an extensive manner, while 6.8% adopted management intensive grazing. Compared with CG users, adopters of RG in its extensive and intensive form reported an average annual increase of grazing season by 7.6 and 39.3 days, respectively. When controlling for producer demographics, ranch management goals and other rancher characteristics, we found soil and climate heterogeneity significantly affected the perceived relative benefits of RG vs CG strategies. Therefore, instead of focusing on whether RG outperforms CG per se, future research could focus on comparison of RG benefits under different management intensity levels and identifying soil and climate conditions where RG benefits are more noticeable.

The success of sustainable Theobroma cacao (cocoa) production depends on the physical and chemical properties of the soils on which they are established but these are possibly moderated by the management approach that farmers adopt. We assessed and compared soil physico-chemical properties of young, mature and old organic and conventional cocoa agroforestry systems at two depths (0–15 and 15–30 cm) and evaluated the production of cocoa pods, banana and plantain in the two farm types. Cocoa farms under organic management had 20, 81, 88 and 323% higher stocks of soil organic carbon, P, Mn and Cu, respectively, compared to those under conventional management. Higher soil moisture content, electrical conductivity and pH were found on organic systems than the conventional farms. Annual cocoa pod production per tree was similar in both cocoa systems (Org. 10.1 ± 1.1 vs Con. 10.1 ± 0.6 pods per tree). The annual production of banana and plantain was higher on organic farms (186.3 ± 34.70 kg ha−1 yr−1) than conventional systems (31.6 ± 9.58 kg ha−1 yr−1). We concluded that organic management of cocoa agroforestry systems result in soils with the greater overall quality for cocoa production than conventional management and it increases the yield of co-products. Studies focusing on the impact of organic management on cocoa agroforestry systems at the landscape and regional scales are urgently needed to further deepen our understanding and support policy.

Fall-planted cover crops offer many benefits including weed suppressive residues in spring sown crops when controlled and left on the soil surface. However, vegetable growers have been slow to adopt direct-seeding (no-till) into cover crop residues. Field studies were conducted in 2009 and 2010 near Paterson, WA and Urbana, IL to evaluate mortality of rye and common vetch (WA) hairy vetch (IL) cover crops, weed density and biomass, and snap bean growth and yield following four cover crop control methods utilizing a roller–crimper. Rye had higher mortality than common and hairy vetch by roller-crimping, and carfentrazone applied after roller crimping only slightly increased vetch mortality. Heavy residues of rye and escaped vetch were difficult to plant into, often resulting in lower snap bean populations. Rye and hairy vetch residues suppressed final weed biomass, while common vetch reduced weed biomass 1 of 2 years. Escaped plants of both vetch species became a weed. Snap bean yields were inconsistent and often lower following cover crops compared with a fallow treatment. Being able to completely control cover crops and to plant, manage escaped weeds and mechanically harvest in the presence of heavy residues are challenges that deter vegetable growers from readily adopting these systems.

The dynamic model Nitrogen Dynamics in Crop rotations in Ecological Agriculture (NDICEA) was used to assess the nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) balance of long-term organic cropping trials and typical organic crop rotations on a range of soil types and rainfall zones in the UK. The measurements of soil N taken at each of the organic trial sites were also used to assess the performance of NDICEA. The modeled outputs compared well to recorded soil N levels, with relatively small error margins. NDICEA therefore seems to be a useful tool for UK organic farmers. The modeling of typical organic rotations has shown that positive N balances can be achieved, although negative N balances can occur under high rainfall conditions and on lighter soil types as a result of leaching. The analysis and modeling also showed that some organic cropping systems rely on imported sources of P and K to maintain an adequate balance and large deficits of both nutrients are apparent in stockless systems. Although the K deficits could be addressed through the buffering capacity of minerals, the amount available for crop uptake will depend on the type and amount of minerals present, current cropping and fertilization practices and the climatic environment. A P deficit represents a more fundamental problem for the maintenance of crop yields and the organic sector currently relies on mined sources of P which represents a fundamental conflict with the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements organic principles.

The dry lowlands of Ethiopia are seasonally affected by long periods of low rainfall and, coinciding with rainfall in the Amhara highlands, flood waters which flow onto the lowlands resulting in damage to landscapes and settlements. In an attempt to convert water from storm generated floods into productive use, this study proposes a methodology using remote sensing data and geographical information system tools to identify potential sites where flood spreading weirs may be installed and farming systems developed which produce food and fodder for poor rural communities. First, land use land cover maps for the study area were developed using Landsat-8 and MODIS temporal data. Sentinel-1 data at 10 and 20 m resolution on a 12-day basis were then used to determine flood prone areas. Slope and drainage maps were derived from Shuttle RADAR Topography Mission Digital Elevation Model at 90 m spatial resolution. Accuracy assessment using ground survey data showed that overall accuracies (correctness) of the land use/land cover classes were 86% with kappa 0.82. Coinciding with rainfall in the uplands, March and April are the months with flood events in the short growing season (belg) and June, July and August have flood events during the major (meher) season. In the Afar region, there is potentially >0.55 m ha land available for development using seasonal flood waters from belg or meher seasons. During the 4 years of monitoring (2015–2018), a minimum of 142,000 and 172,000 ha of land were flooded in the belg and meher seasons, respectively. The dominant flooded areas were found in slope classes of <2% with spatial coverage varying across the districts. We concluded that Afar has a huge potential for flood-based technology implementation and recommend further investigation into the investments needed to support new socio-economic opportunities and implications for the local agro-pastoral communities.

Small farmers face more challenges in farming than ever before. Examples include competition and consolidation within the global marketplace and low and unpredictable product prices. Evaluation and development of alternative market outlets is one means of helping small farms to become more economically sustainable. From 2000 to 2020 the US population is expected to increase by between 50 and 80 million people. A concomitant increase in consumer demand for local, fresh, specialty and organic produce is also projected. Alternative market outlets that skillfully link local or regional small-scale production with evolving consumer demand are currently lacking. We hypothesize that there is considerable potential for helping small farmers sustain or improve their economic position and fulfill consumer needs by exploiting these connections in the marketplace. This investigation draws from the literature to ascertain whether horticultural auction markets may provide such a link for small farms. The paper characterizes horticultural auction markets using current and historical examples, discusses marketplace changes with special reference to consumer demand, and appraises the value of this market model with respect to the dual challenge of meeting both farmers' and consumers' needs. Current marketplace research and characteristics suggest measured optimism for horticultural auction markets to provide a small farm–consumer link.

This paper reports on the initial findings of an ongoing research project to capture differences in pest management strategies and decision-making among growers using the California Pesticide Use Reports (PUR) database. Analysis was performed for prunes in Sutter and Yuba counties to identify on-farm innovation by analyzing the PUR for best management practices to reduce pesticide use. Results showed that large variations in pesticide use were present in 2000, with a range of less than 5 kg to more than 41 kg of pesticide applied per hectare (ha) crop planted in Sutter County and a range of less than 2 kg to close to 30 kg per ha crop planted in Yuba County. Among the 42 growers selected cultivating more than 80 ha, five growers in Sutter County and three growers in Yuba County in 2000 were identified as low pesticide use growers. The results indicated a surprising number of low to no fungicide users and an even higher number of growers using no herbicides in both counties. Twenty-nine viable low pesticide use growers were identified overall among the total 294 growers in the Sutter and Yuba counties. However, there were no spatial patterns of where these low pesticide use growers' fields were located. The transition from higher-risk active ingredients (AIs) to reduced-risk AIs used by many of the low pesticide users suggests intentional substitution. Initial yield data indicate that quantity and quality were not adversely affected by low use growers employing reduced-risk pesticides, fewer (AIs) per field, and lower rates per chemical than their moderate to high use counterparts. Diverse collaborators consisting of university researchers, environmental and community organizations, state government scientists, and growers worked together throughout the entire project, beginning with defining the research parameters, then interpreting the results, and finally suggesting practical applications for the outcomes. The paper also highlights the effectiveness of using such collaborative research relationships to explore low pesticide use alternatives, to directly exchange research findings with growers, and to encourage a farmer-to-farmer extension model.

Nitrogen (N) is a difficult nutrient to manage in organic farming systems, and yield reductions related to N deficiency have been reported in organic systems. Legume-based cover crops offer opportunities for biologically fixed N; however, improved quantification of N contribution is needed for cost-effective N management. A 2-yr experiment was conducted near Corvallis, OR, USA, in 2007 and 2008 to (1) evaluate biomass production and N accumulation from selected cover crop treatments, (2) compare the effects of fall-planted cover crops on broccoli [(Brassica oleraceae L. (Italica group)] yield, (3) estimate the quantity of feather meal-N replaced by cover crops. Cover crop treatments included common vetch (Vicia sativa L.), phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia Benth), oats (Avena sativa L.) and the mixtures phacelia plus vetch, oats plus vetch and a no-cover crop (fallow) treatment as the control. Using feather meal as an N source, four rates of N fertilizer (0, 100, 200 and 300 kg N ha−1) were randomized within each cover crop treatment in a randomized, split-plot design. Cover crop biomass and N accumulation differed between the 2 yr of the study. In 2007, total biomass accumulation ranged from 5000 to 10,000 kg ha−1, whereas in 2008, cover crop accumulation was 1500 to 5000 kg ha−1. Biomass of both phacelia and vetch (in mixtures or as sole crops) was reduced by 80% from 2007 to 2008, whereas oat biomass and weed biomass in the fallow plots was reduced by only 40% between the 2 yr. The accumulation of N was also reduced in 2008, with vetch (either as a sole crop or in mixtures) contributing less than a third of total N produced in 2007. In 2007, vetch and vetch-based cover crop mixtures increased broccoli yield compared with the fallow, providing 100–135 kg fertilizer equivalent N ha−1. But due to decreased cover crop biomass and N accumulation in 2008, vetch and vetch-based mixtures failed to increase broccoli yield, providing <20 kg N ha−1 fertilizer equivalence. In 2007, oats grown as a sole cover crop reduced broccoli yield when no supplemental N was applied. In 2008, both phacelia and oats reduced broccoli yield at all N levels, with estimated N fertilizer equivalence values of −80 to −95 kg N ha−1. Although legume and legume mixtures increased broccoli yield in only 1 yr of the experiment, addition of vetch to the mixtures reduced yield loss in both years compared with oats and phacelia grown as sole crops.

Milk and beef derived from pasture-based systems have been characterized by higher nutritional values and a lower environmental footprint than their equivalents obtained via indoor systems. However, intensification of pasture-based production can have adverse impacts on biodiversity and the environment. To date, studies on pro-environmental diversification options leading to improvement of environmental performance of pasture-based dairy and beef production have rarely been synthesized. The present study sought to review current on-farm pro-environmental measures with the potential for enhancing biodiversity status and/or reducing the environmental impacts of pasture-based agriculture. Literature on farmer attitudes toward these measures was also reviewed to identify potential obstacles and opportunities for transitioning to pro-environmental agriculture. A systematic search of published research from high-income island countries characterized by oceanic temperate climate with a high dependence on pasture-based agriculture—the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom and New Zealand, was conducted. Thirty studies that assessed the impact of pro-environmental measures, eight ‘attitudinal’ studies of dairy and beef farmers and one study covering both aspects were identified. Inductive thematical analysis was subsequently undertaken. Environmentally sensitive management practices such as hedgerows and field margins management, mixed grazing (where two or more herbivorous animals graze the same land), rare livestock breeds, multispecies swards, organic farming and agroforestry were identified as primary themes studied under the auspices of pro-environmental diversification, while forestry, bioenergy crops and organic farming were the main themes identified within attitudinal research studies. Findings suggest that environmentally sensitive practices have varied effects on biodiversity. Mixed grazing was found to improve livestock production, while studies of organic farming reported multiple positive impacts on biodiversity and animal welfare. Effect of multispecies swards on methane emissions and urinary nitrogen extraction were found to be inconsistent. Attitudinal research suggests that the main barrier to implementing afforestation is its lack of attractiveness compared to ‘traditional’ farming and that organic farmer decisions regarding agricultural management practices might be less profit-oriented and influenced by ecological beliefs to a greater extent than decisions of conventional farmers. The results of this study confirm that pro-environmental diversification inherently encompasses multiple scientific disciplines; however, previous study designs and outcomes were found to be fragmented and narrowly focused. Considering the urgency and importance of climate and biodiversity crises, pro-environmental diversification of pasture-based dairy and beef production has rarely been holistically approached and remains understudied. The development of practical, sustainable solutions for farming based on circular economy and respect to nature and additional strategies to increase farmer and consumer environmental awareness should be prioritized by policymakers, advisory and scientific bodies.

Despite continuous growth in demand for organic food and farm products, US domestic supply is not keeping pace. Increasing domestic supply requires, in part, that more farms transition to certified organic production. This in turn requires a better understanding of the transition process. This paper reports on a national survey of farmers transitioning to organic certification through participation in the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Environmental Quality Incentives Program Organic Initiative (EQIP-OI). Our analysis focuses on what motivates farmers to undertake transition to organic certification and what obstacles they confront in the process. The survey population included farmers in the midst of the transition process and farmers who began transition but decided not to pursue organic farming, allowing us to compare both groups to farmers who successfully transitioned to certified organic. Because farmers do not control all of the factors that influence their success, we use a ‘spheres of influence’ framework to analyze obstacles at four levels: the farm, local and regional infrastructure, the marketplace and policy. Our results improve our understanding of the transition process and apply to a wide range of stakeholders and service providers who support farmers in different ways, through crop research, infrastructure development, market development and policy.

Changed spatial configurations at sowing have been investigated as a strategy to minimize interspecific competition and improve the establishment and persistence of multi-species plantings in pastures, but the impact of this practice on the soil microbiome has received almost no previous research attention. Differences in populations of bacteria and fungi in the surface 10 cm of soil in the third year following pasture establishment were quantified using quantitative polymerase chain reaction and terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism methods. Populations were compared on, and between, drill rows sown to either the perennial grass phalaris (Phalaris aquatica L.), perennial legume lucerne (alfalfa; Medicago sativa L.) or the annual legume subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.). Results showed that soil microbial abundance and diversity were related to plant distribution across the field at the time of sampling and to soil chemical parameters including total carbon (C), mineral nitrogen (N), pH, and available phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sulfur (S). Despite the 27-month lag since sowing, pasture species remained concentrated around the original drill row with very little colonization of the inter-row area. The abundance and diversity of bacterial and fungal populations were consistently greater under drill rows associated with higher total C concentrations in the surface soil compared with the inter-row areas. Our results showed that the pH and available nutrients were similar between the subterranean clover drill row and the inter-row, suggesting that soil microbial populations were not impacted directly by these soil fertility parameters, but rather were related to the presence or absence of plants. The abundance of bacteria and fungi were numerically lower under phalaris rows compared to rows sown to legumes. The richness and diversity of fungal populations were lowest between rows where lucerne was planted. Possible explanations for this observation include a lower C:N ratio of lucerne roots and/or a lack of fibrous roots at the soil surface compared to the other species, illustrating the influence of contrasting plant types on the soil microflora community. This study highlights the enduring legacy of the drill row on the spatial distribution of plants well into the pasture phase of a cropping rotation and discusses the opportunity to enhance the microbiome of cropping soils on a large scale during the pasture phase by increasing plant distribution across the landscape.