Videoconferencing has been proposed as a technology which has an immediate and beneficial application to language learning, because it enables face-to-face communication at a distance. The costs remain high, however, and course providers need to be sure what additional ‘pedagogical overheads’ are involved, i.e. in the rethinking of teaching approaches and the preparation of material. This paper reports on a study of a videoconference tutorial carried out as part of the distance learning component of a course in Professional English. The study shows that the interaction between teacher, subject expert and students was characterised by the absence, as well as the presence, of important features of face-to-face communication, and that certain kinds of tutorial activity, such as individual correction, and the management of group discussion, were not especially well supported by the technology used. We discuss the implications of this for the pedagogy of language teaching by videoconference, and draw some lessons for the incorporation of the technology into the mainstream of distance language learning.

Although it has been suggested that automated writing evaluation (AWE) can liberate teachers’ time to focus more on higher-order concerns as it can take care of lower-order concerns, AWE’s impact on teachers’ feedback practice is underexplored. Additionally, scant literature exists on teachers’ perception of AWE when they use it to complement their feedback. This study explored how Grammarly shaped postsecondary L2 writing teachers’ feedback when it was used to complement teacher feedback as well as teachers’ perceptions of the tool. To understand Grammarly’s impact, teachers’ comments on 10 essays were analyzed. The teachers then had a semi-structured interview aimed at exploring their perceptions of Grammarly. The findings showed that teachers provided feedback both on global and local aspects of writing despite using Grammarly as a complement, and there was no division of labor such as that a teacher takes care of higher-order and Grammarly takes care of lower-order concerns. The findings also revealed factors that impacted teachers’ feedback, including teachers’ use of Grammarly reports, their attitudes toward automated feedback, as well as their beliefs about feedback and course objectives. Overall, of the six teachers, four were positive about Grammarly, while two were skeptical. The study provides implications on how to use Grammarly meaningfully as a complement to teacher feedback.

Previous studies have shown that emotional intelligence (henceforth, EI) has a significant impact on important life outcomes (e.g., mental and physical health, academic achievement, work performance, and social relationships). This study aimed to see whether there is any relationship between EI and English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ oral fluency and investigated the possibility of enhancing EI through computer-mediated emotional activities. The participants were 63 students on the Interchange 2 course in a language center in Iran. Participants in the experimental group received EI training using movies with highly emotional content, with the express purpose of inducing them to talk about their emotions and raising their emotional intelligence. Movies shown to the control group did not place any emphasis on emotional content. The results showed a significant increase in EI scores in the experimental group, but no significant change was observed in the control group’s EI scores. Moreover, emotional intelligence correlated positively with the students’ levels of oral fluency.

Faced with reduced numbers choosing to study foreign languages (as in England and Wales), strategies to create and maintain student interest need to be explored. One such strategy is to create ‘taster’ courses in languages, for potential university applicants. The findings presented arise from exploratory research, undertaken to inform the design of a selection of web-based taster courses for less widely taught languages. 687 school students, aged 14-18, were asked to identify a web site that they liked and to state their main reason for liking it. They were invited to include recreational sites and told that their answers could help with web design for the taster courses. To explore the reasons, two focus groups were conducted and student feedback on the developing taster course site was collected. Students nominated search engines and academic sites, sites dedicated to hobbies, enthusiasms, youth culture and shopping. They liked them for their visual attributes, usability, interactivity, support for schoolwork and for their cultural and heritage associations, as well as their content and functionality. They emerged as sensitive readers of web content, visually aware and with clear views on how text should be presented. These findings informed design of the taster course site. They are broadly in line with existing design guidelines but add to our knowledge about school students’ use of the web and about designing web-based learning materials. They may also be relevant to web design at other levels, for example for undergraduates.

This exploratory study sheds new light on students’ perceptions of online feedback types for a complex writing task, summary writing from spoken input in a foreign language (L2), and investigates how these correlate with their actual learning to write. Students tend to favour clear-cut, instructivist rather than constructivist feedback, and guided self-evaluation through model solutions in online learning environments. However, the former type is too limited to tackle all dimensions of advanced writing. Constructivist feedback, in the form of guided modelling, allows addressing the higher-order concerns involved in summary writing. In addition, it is widely acknowledged that activating the zone of proximal development (ZPD) through cognitive involvement is beneficial to learning. To investigate students’ learning from both types of feedback, a one-group pre-post-test intervention study was set up. Students attending a course on summary writing in L2 within a bachelor programme in Applied Languages (n=38) followed an individual online learning module containing both instructivist fill-the-gap exercises and model solutions with constructivist guiding questions for self-assessment. The students’ actual learning gain was measured through pre- and post-tests, and compared with their perceived learning gain, as expressed in self-evaluation. The comparison reveals a dichotomy between the students’ observed learning curve and an underestimation of their own progress. This dichotomy was found to originate in a mismatch between their expectations towards the online learning module and the characteristics of the constructivist feedback conveyed. This mismatch can be attributed to three key factors: (1) evaluation, (2) linguistic focus, and (3) learner motivation.

By providing access, data and new forms of literacy and communication practices, it is widely accepted that networked technologies have done much to promote learner autonomy. However, in practical terms, the lack of resources, expertise and research investigations into learner interaction have all too often meant that autonomous learning is conveniently likened to teacher-independent learning, largely relying on the success and assumed intuitiveness of the World Wide Web (web) for its learner driven delivery. This situation affecting foreign language teaching and learning has been further aggravated by the recent trend, at least in UK universities, to conceive languages solely as communicative tools, further severing them from their academic base and cultural roots, often reducing learner autonomy to poor repetitive interaction. On this premise, this paper proposes to focus on how to make better use of the interactive potential of the web in order to maximise independent language learning online. From a Human Computer Interaction (HCI) design perspective, it intends to shed further light on and increase our understanding of hypermedia and multimedia structures through learner participation and evaluation. On the basis of evidence from an ongoing research investigation into online CALL literacy, it will seek to identify crucial causalities between the user interface and learner interaction affecting the learners’ focus and engagement within their own learning processes. The adopted methodology combines a task analysis of a hypermedia prototype underpinned by an activity theory approach and participatory design based on user walkthroughs and focus groups. By looking at the relationship between action and goal as well as between activities and motives, it attempts to provide a framework for evaluating online hypermedia interactivity based on identified activities, design tasks and design criteria.

For years, computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has thrived as an interdisciplinary subfield, linking applied linguistics and educational technology. Despite its significance and a number of syntheses, CALL research has not yet undergone a comprehensive scientometric synthesis. This study synthesizes CALL research over a period of 42 years by employing a scientometric analysis of sources and document co-citation analyses. Scopus was used to retrieve original articles with a timespan limit from 1980 to 2021. Our records identified 4,631 articles representing CALL-based research, which were published in 63 peer-reviewed journals and collectively contained 186,589 references. The findings indicate that CALL research is supported by robust theoretical frameworks, grounded in socio-cultural and second language acquisition theories. Our research findings have revealed several significant clusters of interest within the realm of CALL, with a pronounced focus on writing among CALL scholars. Additionally, the study identified emerging research areas such as mobile-assisted language learning, synchronous computer-mediated communication, and data-driven learning in CALL literature. Notably, “CALL-core” journals exhibited high productivity, with Language Learning & Technology, Computer Assisted Language Learning, and Computers & Education standing out as top-ranked journals in terms of the Hirsch index (h-index) and co-citation. Suggestions for future research are outlined in the conclusion.

This paper begins by documenting general usage of the Internet as a tool for delivery of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses. It then goes on to illustrate how a number of specific internet-based classroom activities might be integrated onto EAP courses in order to equip non-native speakers with the main skills that they are likely to need when following an academic course at a British university.

The study of multimodality in communication has attracted the attention of researchers studying online multimodal environments such as virtual worlds. Specifically, 3D virtual worlds have especially attracted the interest of educators and academics due to the multiplicity of verbal channels, which are often comprised of text and voice channels, as well as their 3D graphical interface, allowing for the study of non-verbal modes. This study offers a multilayered transcription method called the Multi-Modal MUVE Method or 3M Method (Palomeque, 2016; Pujolà & Palomeque, 2010) to account for the different modes present in the 3D virtual world of Second Life. This method works at two levels: the macro and the micro level. The macro level is a bird’s-eye view representation of the whole session as it fits into one page. This enables the researcher to grasp the essence of the class and to identify interesting sequences for analysis. The micro level consists of three transcripts to account for the different communication modes as well as the interface activity that occurs in the virtual world of Second Life. This paper will review the challenges when dealing with multimodal analysis in virtual worlds and how the multimodal data were analyzed and interpreted by using a multilayered multimodal method of analysis (3M transcription). Examples will be provided in the study to show how different modes of communication were used by participants in the virtual world of Second Life to create meaning or to avoid communication breakdowns.

Technological advances have revolutionised methods of both teaching and testing in languages, and practitioners have eagerly embraced the opportunity to provide more innovative ways of doing this. The unique features offered by technology make it increasingly possible to test for a wide range of language skills required for a specific purpose. With the increasing need to test for English language proficiency and the importance placed on this facility, technology is being utilised to address issues of practicality, speed and efficiency. However, such advantages should not be embraced without due consideration for the essential qualities of any test; validity and reliability. With the inevitable shift towards computer-based testing, certain areas need special consideration. While computer-based tests can provide constructive diagnostic information to complement the language learning process, they should be used more selectively in other contexts, for example in high-stakes tests, examples of which are International English Language Testing System (IELTS) and Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). These tests provide an assessment of English language proficiency, a key component of university admissions criteria. This paper examines a number of issues related to the design and application of computer-based tests, with particular reference to construct validity, computer familiarity and practicality. It is recommended that in the short term at least, test-takers be offered the choice of test medium in the interests of fairness and equity.

Undergraduate students whose programme includes a full academic year on an Erasmus study visit require a range of support before, during and after their year abroad. This study focuses on the support provided by the home academic coordinator during the students’ period of study abroad. The research is based on a case-study which explores how the maintenance of an online journal can enhance students’ new learning experiences. The outcomes of this investigation are of interest at a pragmatic level to Erasmus coordinators and educational institutions whose programmes include a study visit or an internship. At a theoretical level, this study brings together a number of areas that have each been the subject of prior research but that so far have not been pulled together, particularly in the context of a study visit to a foreign country. The areas referred to include the benefits and challenges of rolling out educational online journals; the use of blogging in language learning; the design of rubrics as a form of feedback and the activity of reflective writing in an online environment. The findings and the discussion show how the online journal has added a positive dimension to the year abroad, particularly in the areas of communication and feedback, peer support, language learning and technology.

Student interest in films as a medium for ESL education is high. Interest, however, is not enough to foster understanding in a traditional classroom environment. A more hands-on interactive approach to studying a second language via film is needed. By using online interactive exercises to study the language and culture in film, students are able to gain a better understanding of the language used in the film. This paper outlines a course that was developed using online interactive exercises and film to study language and culture. The course incorporates several modern technologies to allow students to take an active role in their learning and to increase their skills in areas that the students perceive to be of value in the future, namely listening, reading, and presentation skills. Automated feedback functions let the students, as well as the instructors, constantly monitor their progress. These technologies allow a more efficient use of classroom time and permit the students to go into the content of the film – especially the cultural aspects – much more deeply. Through this course, students are able to boost their confidence and their motivation to continue the study of language and culture via films on their own

This paper reports on a large-scale study carried out in four settings that investigates the potential of the Web as a medium of language instruction, both to complement face-to-face teaching and as a stand-alone course. Data was collected by questionnaires and observational procedures to ascertain student perceptions of the usefulness of Web-based learning, their views on its advantages and disadvantages, their personal comfort and enjoyment when working with the Web, their preferred mode of delivery, their evaluation of the quality of resources used, and their learning strategies and study preference. Results showed that students were on the whole positively inclined to working with the Web and found it useful, with the majority preferring to use the Web as an add-on to face-to-face teaching. Reported advantages fell into the broad categories of time flexibility, reinforced learning, privacy and wealth of information; disadvantages into distraction, absence of teacher and personal interaction and lack of speaking practice. Significant differences for age and gender were found relating to clarity of objectives, number of hours worked, mode of delivery, perception of comfort and appreciation of graphics. Very few significant findings relating to strategy strength emerged.

The flexible use of digital recordings from EFL classrooms as well as online communication with teaching experts are two promising ways of implementing e-learning in the context of initial teacher training. Our research focuses on how to blend these elements efficiently with the different theoretical and practical content layers of an introductory course “Teaching English as a Foreign Language” to foster the development of critical, reflective thinking of prospective teachers of English and to empower the learners. In this paper we discuss the concept of autonomy as a course strategy and argue that enabling a student to take responsibility and to make informed choices is the main route to an autonomous learner. We introduce and analyze learning activities such as working with multimedia-based case stories that include video episodes as situational anchors and conducting an einterview. These learning activities are two formats that integrate elearning and contact learning in a directed, interactive way to foster the learner’s autonomy. The study is a follow-up of a pilot study on blended learning in a teacher training course and was conducted as action research in the 2004/05 winter semester. It combines qualitative and quantitative research methods and integrates multiple perspectives on the teaching and learning scenarios.

We have developed an English pronunciation learning system which estimates the intelligibility of Japanese learners' speech and ranks their errors from the viewpoint of improving their intelligibility to native speakers. Error diagnosis is particularly important in self-study since students tend to spend time on aspects of pronunciation that do not noticeably affect intelligibility. As a preliminary experiment, the speech of seven Japanese students was scored from 1 (hardly intelligible) to 5 (perfectly intelligible) by a linguistic expert. We also computed their error rates for each skill. We found that each intelligibility level is characterized by its distribution of error rates. Thus, we modeled each intelligibility level in accordance with its error rate. Error priority was calculated by comparing students' error rate distributions with that of the corresponding model for each intelligibility level. As non-native speech is acoustically broader than the speech of native speakers, we developed an acoustic model to perform automatic error detection using speech data obtained from Japanese students. As for supra-segmental error detection, we categorized errors frequently made by Japanese students and developed a separate acoustic model for that type of error detection. Pronunciation learning using this system involves two phases. In the first phase, students experience virtual conversation through video clips. They receive an error profile based on pronunciation errors detected during the conversation. Using the profile, students are able to grasp characteristic tendencies in their pronunciation errors which in effect lower their intelligibility. In the second phase, students practise correcting their individual errors using words and short phrases. They then receive information regarding the errors detected during this round of practice and instructions for correcting the errors. We have begun using this system in a CALL class at Kyoto University. We have evaluated system performance through the use of questionnaires and analysis of speech data logged in the server, and will present our findings in this paper.

While language teacher education programmes and language syllabi in secondary education encourage the use of the target language in the classroom, resources to support teachers in this endeavour, such as books with useful phrases, do not state that the examples they provide are corpus-based, i.e. drawn from actual language use rather than invented phrases. This paper investigates whether consultation of a corpus of classroom discourse can be of benefit in language teacher education. The paper describes a project involving the creation of corpora of classroom discourse in French and Spanish, and the use of these corpora with student teachers. After setting the research in the context of corpora and classroom interaction, it examines issues such as the content of the corpora, the type of consultation (direct or mediated by the teacher), and the student teachers’ evaluation of the activity. Special attention is paid to one particular aspect of classroom interaction, discourse markers.

Vocabulary learning theory suggests that productive recall should strengthen learning of new vocabulary items (Nation, 2001). CALL can provide both the opportunities for productive recall and the feedback to motivate repeated efforts to reproduce new items. The latter capability appears to give CALL some advantages over paper-based exercises, in particular when such learning is done out of class time without immediate teacher feedback. Three experiments are reported. In the first two, a comparison is made of CALL exercises that encourage productive recall with those that encourage passive recall. Initially productive recall appears to give greater learning gains, supporting theory. Over time, the results are comparable. Both groups make substantial gains. Observation suggests that students apply their own strategies to enhance recall, to some extent independently of the exercise type. The advantages and disadvantages of incorporating productive recall into the design of CALL exercises need to be considered together with those of students applying their own strategies to enhance recall. Based on the outcome of this assessment, a sequence of exercises to introduce new vocabulary is designed that encourages passive and active recall as well as other strategies thought to help initial vocabulary learning. In the third experiment, these exercises are delivered over the Web for a whole semester as preparatory materials for in-class work. Outcomes are reported in terms of learning gains but particular attention is paid to evaluating maintenance of student motivation. It is suggested that CALL is an effective way to introduce new vocabulary, that such effectiveness is enhanced by designing exercises based on theory, and that it works well for sustained periods, even in circumstances where student motivation is not necessarily high, when there is close integration with classroom work.

Whilst the potential of online Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in terms of access, immediacy and exposure is widely acknowledged, as yet remarkably little is known about its impact on the user population, be they language teachers or learners. Indeed, beyond its technological development, online CALL design is still affected by a dearth of reliable evaluative data, critically needed for improving the interface design, implementation and integration. On this premise, this paper proposes to focus on a range of appropriate evaluation methods applied to a recently authored web-based interactive CALL interface, comprising multimedia interactive exercises and self testing, as part of an ongoing research combining Human Computer Interaction (HCI), Java programming and language teaching expertise. This current evaluation adopts a novel approach insofar as its main objectives are not only to assess the usability and usefulness of the interface as well as the student experience, but also to compare the different methods used on the basis of their input and evaluative output. Ultimately, this paper will strive to bring theory and practice closer together by shedding further light on the crucial role of evaluation, the appropriateness of the data it generates and its applicability to online CALL development.

This paper reports on the results of an action research project at Coventry University that consisted of the evaluation of a curriculum innovation supported by the use of the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) WebCT, i.e. a new module (course): Academic and Professional Skills for Language Learning. The project was carried out collaboratively by staff – all the linguists teaching level 1 modules in EFL, French, German, Italian, Russian and Spanish – and students over a period of ten months in 2002–2003. The module aims at engaging students actively with the new literacies and skills required by the ‘knowledge society’. The provisional hypothesis was that skills-based teaching and learning activities that are aligned with the needs of language learners would raise confidence in academic and professional skills and increase motivation and proficiency in language learning. The use of the Virtual Learning Environment Web Communication Tools (WebCT), available within the online learning portal both on and off campus for students at Coventry University, would be instrumental in testing the hypothesis, as it provided an interactive reflective forum for both staff and students involved. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. The paper will show how the use of the Virtual Learning Environment facilitated the creation of exercises that developed both ICT skills and language-specific ones. On a less positive note, the results confirmed the outcomes of other research in the field, i.e. that students find it challenging to become reflective, autonomous learners and that we cannot assume that the use of technology automatically leads to autonomy. Many students also found it challenging to see the relevance to their studies of skills and literacies that went beyond the four basic language skills. The paper will conclude by illustrating both the positive and the negative outcomes of the project and outlining the staff/student-agreed way forward in the light of the issues encountered.

This study concerned multiple exposures to English before writing and aimed to explore the possibility of an increase in free active vocabulary with a focus on latent productive vocabulary beyond the first 2,000 most frequent words. The researcher incorporated online video into her college freshman composition class and examined its effects on non-basic vocabulary use. To activate previously known vocabulary, a variety of audiovisual modes before writing were applied to four groups alternately: (1) video with captions, (2) video without captions, (3) silent video with captions, and (4) video with screen off (soundtrack only). The results show that the writing involving non-captioned videos contained a higher percentage of advanced vocabulary than that with the other three conditions (specifically, 12.45% versus 11.33% with captioned videos, 5.2% with silent but captioned videos and 8.63% with audio only). Drawing upon the dual-coding theory, this study also points out some pedagogical implications for a video-based writing course.