Our study aims to optimize a multimedia application for vocabulary learning for English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Our study is based on the concept that difficulty in reading a text in a second language is due to the need for more working memory for word decoding skills, although the working memory must also be used for text comprehension skills. This implies that the automatization of word decoding to free the working memory is indispensable. Therefore, developing a multimedia application for vocabulary learning with a time-control function, our study hypothesizes that vocabulary learning with this function brings about the automatization of word decoding or faster recall of the meanings, and, as a result of freeing more working memory, better comprehension of text. According to our research, multimedia application users not only retained more words and recalled their meanings more quickly but also obtained higher scores on reading comprehension tests that contained the words learned through the application. From this result, we conclude that multimedia vocabulary learning with a time-control function can automatize word decoding skills and therefore free more working memory, thereby leading to better comprehension of the text.

This study reports on the integration of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) multimedia courseware for oral presentations into a self-learning and elective program for non-English major students in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) setting. A computer-aided instruction approach, combined with a task-based learning approach, was adopted. Computers played a central role as the means of information delivery. The courseware acted as a silent partner and played the role of a tutor and adjunct teacher to provide students with authentic materials for learning to give English oral presentations in international business and technical settings. It offered a variety of learning activities with instant on-line self-evaluation for students to practice integrative language skills and learn content knowledge. Evaluation of student performance was based upon data from pre- and post-tasks, student questionnaires about concerns, and an open-ended questionnaire. After active participation and self-learning, most of the non-English major students clearly indicated they had made some improvement or progress and felt their learning effectiveness for preparing speech texts was significantly improved. In addition, they had become more concerned about their English ability and the ESP courseware was able to meet their need for greater linguistic support to enhance their language ability.

Given the importance of corpus linguistics in language learning, there have been calls for the integration of corpus training into teacher education programmes. However, the question of what knowledge and skills the training should target remains unclear. Hence, we advance our understanding of measures and outcomes of teacher corpus training by proposing and testing a five-component theoretical framework for measuring teachers’ perceived corpus literacy (CL) and its subskills: understanding, search, analysis, and the advantages and limitations of corpora. Also, we hypothesised that teacher CL is linked to their intention to use corpora in classroom teaching. Specifically, 183 teachers and student teachers received corpus training to develop their CL and then completed a survey to measure their CL and intention to use corpora in teaching in Likert-scale items together with open-ended questions. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that a hierarchical factor structure for CL using the aforementioned five subfactors best fitted the data. Moreover, structural equation modelling indicated that CL is positively linked to the participants’ intention to integrate corpora into classroom teaching. While all five subskills are important for teachers, greater effort should be made to develop their corpus search and analysis skills, which can be viewed as the “bread and butter” of corpus training.

This paper presents the results of a study exploring the intercultural development of first-year Japanese university students engaged in online intercultural exchange (OIE) using two variations: one implementing guided reflection, and the other relying on the learner autonomy model. Intercultural development was quantitatively measured using the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (Chen & Starosta, 2000) and qualitatively investigated through participants’ written reflections. Results of the OIE using guided reflection showed significant gains in respect for the target culture, whereas the OIE that followed the autonomous learning model yielded significant gains in self-efficacy in relation to intercultural contact. Qualitative analysis of student reflections confirmed these findings and provided insight into the processes involved in achieving these results.

CALL evaluation might ideally draw on principles from fields such as second language acquisition, language pedagogy, instructional design, and testing and measurement in order to make judgments about criteria such as elaborated input, feedback, collaborative learning, authentic tasks, navigation, screen design, reliability, validity, impact, and practicality. In this study, a subset of criteria were used to evaluate the design of English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) online courses and assessments, Longman English Online. This article illustrates how a set of principles suggested evaluation criteria which, in turn, suggested particular variables for the instructional design; these variables, again in turn, suggested potential operationalizations which could be implemented as task features in CALL materials. Results of the judgmental evaluation indicated that most of the criteria were met, although some better than others.

Compared to traditional pen-and-paper presentation of information, computer-assisted argument mapping seems to be more efficient in developing lower order thinking skills such as memory and comprehension. The present study investigated the impact of argument map construction and reading via computer versus pen and paper on English as a foreign language (EFL) majors’ comprehension, recall, and retention of argumentative texts. To this end, 120 Iranian EFL undergraduates were divided into low and high proficiency levels after taking a language proficiency test. Next, they were randomly assigned to two experimental groups; each group received 12 sessions of argument mapping instruction, one via computer and the other via pen and paper. At the end of the term, participants randomly received two argument map sizes (small vs. large) and were given 15 minutes to read the maps. Then tests of recall and comprehension relevant to the maps were administered, followed by a test of retention within a two-week interval. The results revealed that after controlling for spatial and verbal covariates, the type of treatment had a significant effect on recall, retention, and comprehension, with the software group outperforming the pen-and-paper group; however, proficiency level and argument size did not show any significant effect.

Despite the spread of reliable desktop audio and videoconferencing facilities, some CMC-based projects still rely on asynchronous written environments, if only because of the temporal constraints of synchronicity (Guichon, 2009; Develotte, Guichon & Vincent, 2010). Yet speaking is usually the skill students most need to improve when learning a second language (L2). This paper therefore sets out to measure the impact of distant written exchanges between Native Speakers (NS) and Non Native Speakers (NNS) on the development of NNS L2 oral output, focusing specifically on the effect of phonological nativisation. The context of this study is a teacher training programme for future primary school teachers in France. During their L2 course aiming to help them improve their mastery of English, they were given the opportunity to take part in a CMC-based project with PGCE (Postgraduate Certificate in Education) students from King's College, London. Action research was thus carried out to examine the potential of this project in the development of the participants’ L2 oral output.

The L2 course being task-oriented, the trainee teachers’ L2 oral output was evaluated by means of pre- and post-tests based on tasks. The results show that stability prevails over progress, which is in keeping with the fact that interlanguage development is a long process (Chapelle, 2003: 119). The results also confirm the importance of phonological nativisation when learners have access only to written authentic input.

Owing to the anytime-anywhere-anyhow nature of mobile learning, together with the ubiquity of affordably priced mobile phones, learning has become a mobigital practice, as termed by Şad and Göktaş (2014). Consequently, language teaching/learning is gradually shifting from computer-assisted language learning to mobile-assisted language learning (MALL). In response, the current study examined the impact of MALL training on preservice and in-service EFL teachers’ perceptions and use of mobile technology (MT). For this purpose, two groups of preservice (N = 33) and in-service (N = 31) EFL teachers were randomly selected and exposed to MALL training. The pretest-posttest experimental mixed-methods design was used as a framework for collecting and analyzing both quantitative and qualitative data (using closed- and open-ended-question surveys). Quantitative results revealed that both preservice and in-service teachers had similar perceptions of MT before and after training. The only exception is that, after training, in-service teachers were more interested in MT than preservice teachers. However, both groups demonstrated an overall (and subfactor) improvement in their perceptions after MT training, except for their perceived ease of use. In-service teachers’ use also improved after training and, due to the yielded positive correlation, their perceptions were a significant predictor of use. Qualitative findings showed that in-service teachers used MT more in listening and speaking (for synchronous communication) than in reading and writing, selecting social media and translation apps as the least useful ones. Moreover, they regarded technical and digital literacy problems as the ones most challenging to the use of MT.

In recent years, automated written feedback (AWF) has gained popularity in language learning and teaching as a form of artificial intelligence (AI). The present study aimed at providing a comprehensive state-of-the-art review of AWF. Using Scopus as the main database, we identified 83 SSCI-indexed published articles on AWF (1993–2022). We investigated several main domains consisting of research contexts, AWF systems, feedback focus, ways of utilizing AWF, research design, foci of investigation, and results. Our results showed that although AWF was primarily studied in language and writing classes at the tertiary level, with a focus on English as the target language, the scope of AWF research has been steadily broadening to include diverse language environments and ecological settings. This heterogeneity was also demonstrated by the wide range of AWF systems employed (n = 31), ways of integrating AWF (n = 14), different types of AWF examined (n = 3), as well as varied research designs. In addition, three main foci of investigation were delineated: (1) the performance of AWF; (2) perceptions, uses, engagement with AWF, and influencing factors; and (3) the impact of AWF. We identified positive, negative, neutral, and mixed results in all three main foci of investigation. Overall, less positive results were found in validating AWF compared to results favoring the other two areas. Lastly, we grounded our findings within the argument-based validity framework and also examined the potential implications.

Language learners today exhibit a strong preference for free online resources. One problem with such resources is that their quality can vary dramatically. Building on related work on monolingual resources for English, we propose an evaluation framework for online bilingual dictionaries, designed to assess lexicographic quality in four major areas: coverage of lexical items, their treatment in the entries, access to lexical information, and presentation of lexicographic data. The proposed framework is applied to a set of six popular bilingual English-Polish dictionaries freely available online, established through an online survey of Polish learners of English.

This paper illustrates how a freely available online corpus has been exploited in a module on teaching business letters covering the following four speech acts (functions) commonly found in business letters: invitations, requests, complaints and refusals. It is proposed that different strategies are required for teaching potentially non-face-threatening (invitations, requests) and face-threatening (complaints, refusals) speech acts.

The hands-on pedagogic activities follow the ‘guided inductive approach’ advocated by Johansson (2009) and draw on practices and strategies covered in the literature on using corpora in language learning and teaching, viz. the need for ‘pedagogic mediation’, and the ‘noticing’ hypothesis from second language acquisition studies.

Virtual exchange (VE) is an ideal venue for digital literacy skills development (Fuchs, Hauck & Müller-Hartmann, 2012) and for critical digital literacy (CDL) (Hauck, 2019). Yet literacy is a fluid, deictic term, the meaning of which is context dependent, and digital literacies need to be defined and conceptualised within a specific context. Recent CALL literature highlights the interest in CDL from various perspectives, but how CDL is conceptualised by the VE participants themselves is not explored. Participants of this study were 37 trainee English language teachers in the UK and Turkey who joined a 6-week VE. Their ongoing reflections on CDL were captured through reflective e-portfolio entries following each VE task. Thematic analysis revealed four components of CDL in this specific VE: (1) participants’ awareness of digital affordances for self-expression, (2) semiotic and interactional means to build connections, (3) ensuring inclusiveness of all community members, and (4) implications of socio-political contexts of each participant for meaning-making and interaction. We conclude that in future pedagogical implementations of VE, facilitators can foster trainee teachers’ CDL development through more closely guided and informed reflection on the four themes presented in this paper. As such, this study makes a novel contribution to our understanding of CDL in VE settings for ELT teacher education by offering a social semiotic second language acquisition orientation within an interpretivist paradigm.

This paper describes an English language listening test intended as computer-based testing material for secondary school students in Hong Kong, where considerable attention is being invested in online and computer-based testing. As well as providing a school-based testing facility, the study aims to contribute to the knowledge base regarding the efficacy and reliability of computer-based testing. The paper describes the construction of an item bank of over 400 short listening items calibrated on item response theory principles. Items from this bank were used to form a traditional paper-based listening test, and an adaptive computer-based test. Both forms of the test were administered to two Hong Kong Grade 11 and Grade 12 classes. Descriptive test statistics indicated that both test types discriminated effectively between school grades. In terms of comparability between test types, there was significant difference between the Grade 11 classes’ performance although not with that of Grade 12. Test takers generally performed better on the computer-based test than on the paper-based test, confirming earlier research. Interviews with test takers after taking both tests indicated an even split in terms of preference, with boys opting for the computer-based test and girls the paper-based test. Correlations between test takers’ performance on the two test types were high enough to indicate the computer-based test’s potential as a low-stakes test (its intended purpose as a school-based testing facility), although not as a high-stakes test (for example, as a territory-wide test replacing a traditional paper-based test).

As shown by several studies, successful integration of technology in language learning requires a holistic approach in order to scientifically understand what learners do when working with web-based technology (cf. Raby, 2007). Additionally, a growing body of research in computer assisted language learning (CALL) evaluation, design and development, has indicated that analysis of learners’ behaviours is an essential element to implementing high-quality technology (e.g., Chapelle, 2001; Levy & Stockwell, 2006). Hence, carefully evaluating the effectiveness of CALL by collecting empirical data on user interactions while focusing on the process of learning is integral to a holistic understanding of students’ behaviours (e.g. Felix, 2005; Hémard, 2006).

This article examines a design-based research that seeks to analyse and understand the dynamics of user interactions with a specific web-based CALL tool in the context of a French as a second language (FSL) course. To this end, we present a sample of results based on an analysis of specific tasks carried out with this CALL tool that is designed in part to encourage students’ integration of critical and electronic literacies. By way of conclusion, we identify the steps that are necessary to enhance this particular CALL system and help users better achieve their learning goals. In particular, we explain the process of recycling our results in the next design phase of the CALL tool in a continuous improvement effort.

The present study investigated Japanese students’ EFL vocabulary development through e-mail interactions with a native English speaker (NS), with primary focus on students’ imitation of new words. According to sociocultural theory, learners can internalize new linguistic knowledge by imitating an expert’s expressions to create his/her own utterances. This study, therefore, specifically examined whether (1) students could imitate the new vocabulary items provided by the NS tutor, and (2) they could retain these items at the end of the project. An examination of the e-mail log showed that students did imitate and use some of the lexis provided by the NS. The results of the post-test also revealed that some of the imitated words were subsequently retained. However, there were some words that had been learned without imitation. The questionnaire survey and the students’ interview comments indicated that students memorized a considerable number of new words provided by the NS by repeatedly reading them in e-mail text, as well as in other learning contexts, such as regular classes and independent study, through noticing, retrieving, and generating the meaning/form of each word (Nation, 2001). The study concluded that vocabulary learning via e-mail takes place not only by a single process such as imitation, but also by a combination of various processes functioning in an integrated manner.

Tandem language learning is based on a partnership between two people, each of whom is learning the other's language. Successful tandem partnerships observe the principle of reciprocity (“tandem learners support one another equally’) and the principle of learner autonomy (“tandem partners are responsible for their own learning”) (Little and Brammerts 1996: 1 Off.). This paper begins by exploring some of the theoretical implications of tandem language learning in general and tandem language learning via e-mail in particular. It then reports on the pilot phase of an e-mail tandem project involving Irish university students learning German and German university students learning English.

Videoconferencing has been proposed as a technology which has an immediate and beneficial application to language learning, because it enables face-to-face communication at a distance. The costs remain high, however, and course providers need to be sure what additional ‘pedagogical overheads’ are involved, i.e. in the rethinking of teaching approaches and the preparation of material. This paper reports on a study of a videoconference tutorial carried out as part of the distance learning component of a course in Professional English. The study shows that the interaction between teacher, subject expert and students was characterised by the absence, as well as the presence, of important features of face-to-face communication, and that certain kinds of tutorial activity, such as individual correction, and the management of group discussion, were not especially well supported by the technology used. We discuss the implications of this for the pedagogy of language teaching by videoconference, and draw some lessons for the incorporation of the technology into the mainstream of distance language learning.

Although it has been suggested that automated writing evaluation (AWE) can liberate teachers’ time to focus more on higher-order concerns as it can take care of lower-order concerns, AWE’s impact on teachers’ feedback practice is underexplored. Additionally, scant literature exists on teachers’ perception of AWE when they use it to complement their feedback. This study explored how Grammarly shaped postsecondary L2 writing teachers’ feedback when it was used to complement teacher feedback as well as teachers’ perceptions of the tool. To understand Grammarly’s impact, teachers’ comments on 10 essays were analyzed. The teachers then had a semi-structured interview aimed at exploring their perceptions of Grammarly. The findings showed that teachers provided feedback both on global and local aspects of writing despite using Grammarly as a complement, and there was no division of labor such as that a teacher takes care of higher-order and Grammarly takes care of lower-order concerns. The findings also revealed factors that impacted teachers’ feedback, including teachers’ use of Grammarly reports, their attitudes toward automated feedback, as well as their beliefs about feedback and course objectives. Overall, of the six teachers, four were positive about Grammarly, while two were skeptical. The study provides implications on how to use Grammarly meaningfully as a complement to teacher feedback.

An increasing number of studies are exploring the benefits of automatic speech recognition (ASR)–based dictation programs for second language (L2) pronunciation learning (e.g. Chen, Inceoglu & Lim, 2020; Liakin, Cardoso & Liakina, 2015; McCrocklin, 2019), but how ASR recognizes accented speech and the nature of the feedback it provides to language learners is still largely under-researched. The current study explores whether the intelligibility of L2 speakers differs when assessed by native (L1) listeners versus ASR technology, and reports on the types of intelligibility issues encountered by the two groups. Twelve L1 listeners of English transcribed 48 isolated words targeting the /ɪ-i/ and /æ-ε/ contrasts and 24 short sentences that four Taiwanese intermediate learners of English had produced using Google’s ASR dictation system. Overall, the results revealed lower intelligibility scores for the word task (ASR: 40.81%, L1 listeners: 38.62%) than the sentence task (ASR: 75.52%, L1 listeners: 83.88%), and highlighted strong similarities in the error types – and their proportions – identified by ASR and the L1 listeners. However, despite similar recognition scores, correlations indicated that the ASR recognition of the L2 speakers’ oral productions mirrored the L1 listeners’ judgments of intelligibility in the word and sentence tasks for only one speaker, with significant positive correlations for one additional speaker in each task. This suggests that the extent to which ASR approaches L1 listeners at recognizing accented speech may depend on individual speakers and the type of oral speech.