Based on morphometric and molecular methods, the taxonomy of the infraspecific taxa of Fuscidea cyathoides (Ach.) V. Wirth & Vězda, var. corticola (Fr.) Kalb and var. sorediata (H. Magn.) Poelt, has been assessed. No formal taxonomic recognition should be attributed to the morphological and ecological variation. Accordingly, var. corticola and var. sorediata are synonymized with F. cyathoides var. cyathoides. New synonyms at the specific level are Fuscidea fagicola (Zschacke) Hafellner & Türk and F. stiriaca (A. Massal.) Hafellner.

The new lichenicolous fungus Capronia suijae growing on the thallus of corticolous Xanthoria parietina is described from Belarus and compared with similar species. In addition to its host selection, the species is characterized by comparatively small ascomata, 40–80 μm diam., and (0–1–)3-septate ascospores, 9·5–11·5×4·0–5·0 μm. A key to the lichenicolous fungi growing on Xanthoria s. str. is provided.

Leprocaulon calcicola is described as new from walls in SE England; it is leprose, pale to mid blue-grey, and contains zeorin and usnic acid. It differs from L. knudsenii from North America in its habitat on mortared walls rather than non-calcareous rock and in its ITS sequence. ‘Lecanora’ ecorticata differs in the yellower colour, and the presence of unidentified fatty acids and traces of unknown terpenoids (but not zeorin) by thin-layer chromatography. Leprose lichens with usnic acid are still poorly known and sequencing must be used to support morphological and chemical studies.

Three new species of Verrucaria are described from calcareous and calciferous rocks in Finland based on morphology and ITS sequences. The species are all members of the Endocarpon group in the Verrucariaceae. Verrucaria oulankaensis sp. nov. is related to V. cernaensis but differing in its usually pruinose, small areolate thallus. It occurs in NE Finland on calcareous and calciferous rocks on river shores. Verrucaria ahtii sp. nov. and V. vitikainenii sp. nov. form a sister group in the ITS phylogeny. Verrucaria vitikainenii differs from V. ahtii in the darker and thinner thallus, absence of a prothallus and in the perithecia, which lack thalline cover. Verrucaria ahtii morphologically resembles V. apomelaena but differs in having a thinner involucrellum and a fimbriate prothallus. It has a southern distribution in Finland and prefers sun-exposed sites, particularly pebbles in lime quarries. The species is also reported from Lithuania and Russia. Verrucaria vitikainenii has an eastern distribution in Finland. The species is a strict calcicole, preferring half-shady habitats. Verrucaria apomelaena is excluded from the Finnish lichen flora.

Sixteen sorediate epiphytic species of Lecanora with atranorin from Europe are reported here. Lecanora substerilis is described as a new species from Carpathian beech forests in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania and Ukraine; it belongs to the L. subfusca group in its strict sense and is characterized by its usually verrucose thallus, sorediate apothecial margin, epihymenium with coarse granules at paraphyses tips, amphithecium with large crystals and it produces atranorin and fatty acid(s). A new, yellow chemotype of L. barkmaniana containing pulvinic acid derivatives is recognized from Austria. Morphological, ecological and chemical variation in L. exspersa, L. farinaria and L. variolascens is discussed in detail, and brief comments on the remaining 11 species are provided. Evaluation of the type material and molecular data indicate that the predominantly saxicolous L. caesiosora is a sorediate form of L. cenisia. Molecular data confirmed the identities of the sorediate forms of L. albella and L. allophana that are conspecific with their fertile counterparts. New Central European localities are listed for the rare species, L. barkmaniana, L. exspersa, L. mughosphagneti, L. norvegica and L. variolascens. Positions in ITS and mtSSU phylogenies are outlined for most species. Identification keys to fertile as well as sterile populations are provided.

Macro-morphological features traditionally used to segregate genera in Parmeliaceae have been shown to be highly plastic, placing limits on their taxonomic value. Here we aim to elucidate the evolutionary relationships of the genera Relicina and Relicinopsis and reassess the phenotypic features traditionally used to separate these genera. To this end, we gathered ribosomal DNA sequences of ITS, nuLSU and mtSSU and analyzed them in a phylogenetic framework. Relicina was recovered as paraphyletic, with Relicinopsis nested within, and three different clades were identified within Relicina. Alternative hypothesis tests significantly rejected the monophyly of Relicina. Our results indicate that the presence or absence of bulbate cilia is of limited taxonomic value in this clade. Based on differences in conidia, however, we propose to accept Relicinopsis as a subgenus within Relicina as Relicina subgen. Relicinopsis (Elix & Verdon) Kirika, Divakar & Lumbsch. It is proposed that five new combinations of species previously classified in Relicinopsis be placed in Relicina.

Bactrospora dryina is an epiphytic lichen-forming fungus specifically related to old-growth floodplain forests, which have dramatically declined in Europe over the past centuries. In order to promote conservation management of such forest remnants, we aimed to study population genetics of this rare and threatened lichen. The newly developed 16 microsatellite markers are specific for the mycobiont of B. dryina and reliably amplify either single fruiting bodies or a sterile thallus. This allows the use of these markers for the identification of sterile crusts and for quantification of recent dispersal of the species into restored habitats. We tested the markers in 264 samples collected from 10 pedunculate oak trees growing in three localities in north-eastern Switzerland. All markers were polymorphic and showed two to five alleles per locus, and unbiased gene diversity varied from 0·06 to 0·71 over three populations. The relatively low number of alleles in B. dryina is possibly the consequence of colonization of secondary habitats created by forest management. Although oaks were largely covered with a single, continuous B. dryina colony, the microsatellite markers identified single or complex multi-genotype colonizations per tree. For future population genetic studies, we recommend collection of 5–15 specimens from one tree which would enable detection of 60–80% of the multilocus genotypes present. Hierarchical AMOVA revealed high variation (70%) on host trees, and a relatively high differentiation (12%) among the three locations in NE Switzerland indicated limited gene flow between those regions. Thus, the newly developed markers showed their applicability in population genetics at different spatial scales. They will play an important role in monitoring habitat restoration for the conservation of B. dryina and associated forests and riverscapes.

Rhizocarpon smaragdulum Davydov & Yakovchenko sp. nov. is described and a phylogenetic analysis (ITS, mtSSU) is presented, confirming its distinctiveness and indicating a sister relationship with R. suomiense and R. subgeminatum. The species is unique among yellow Rhizocarpon species in having a single hyaline ascospore per ascus. The phylogenetic tree suggests that the number of ascospores per ascus has been reduced in Rhizocarpon more than once during the course of its evolution. Two new distributional records are also reported: Rhizocarpon atroflavescens is new for Siberia and R. norvegicum is new for the Altai Mountains. Rhizocarpon norvegicum in this region grows on rocks and is also lichenicolous on Acarospora bullata.

Detailed morphological and anatomical studies informed by molecular inferences with mtSSU as a marker revealed two new species of Micarea in Western Europe, both belonging to the core group of the genus, namely the M. prasina group: M. herbarum from the Netherlands and Poland and M. meridionalis from Portugal and Italy. Micarea herbarum looks like a small or depauperate M. denigrata but clearly differs by the lack of gyrophoric acid, while M. meridionalis is distinguished by its granular thallus and the production of micareic acid.

Ramalina europaea Gasparyan, Sipman & Lücking and R. labiosorediata Gasparyan, Sipman & Lücking, two species of the R. pollinaria group, are described here as new to science. Ramalina europaea, widely distributed in Europe, can be distinguished by small, punctiform, often terminal soralia starting out on small, spine-like branchlets, whereas R. labiosorediata from North America differs from R. pollinaria s. str. and R. europaea in the almost exclusively terminal soralia formed on the tips of normal lobes, originating from the underside and becoming irregularly labriform. Morphological characters, chemistry, ecology and geographical distribution are discussed and a key to the species of the Ramalina pollinaria group is provided. The topology of a maximum likelihood tree based on ITS shows the presence of three well-supported clades, corresponding to the morphological differences of the three species. The status of several historical names variously placed in synonymy with or described as infraspecific entities of R. pollinaria is reassessed and a new neotype and an epitype are designated for Lichen pollinarius, a neotype for L. squarrosus, making it a synonym of R. farinacea, and lectotypes for R. pollinaria var. elatior, making it a synonym of R. pollinaria s. str., and for var. humilis, a taxon of yet unknown affinity.

Candelariella blastidiata Yakovchenko sp. nov. is described. This corticolous species is characterized by biatorine yellow apothecia, a grey squamulose thallus with marginal and lower side blastidia, 8-spored asci, and a northern circumpolar distribution. Candelariella subdeflexa has previously been confused with C. blastidiata, but our analyses of phenotypic and DNA sequence data revealed C. blastidiata should be distinguished from C. subdeflexa. A worldwide key for Candelariella species with grey thalli is provided.

Molecular studies have shown the type collection of Omphalina oreades to be conspecific with a small brown basidiolichen from the Appalachian range in Newfoundland, both with 4-spored basidia. Two sequences deposited in GenBank, originally identified as O. grisella, fell in the same clade. Sequences of the type collection of Omphalia grisella, with 2-spored basidia, formed a sister clade together with two GenBank deposits, one identified as O. grisella and the other as Omphalina velutina. Omphalina oreades is recombined here as Lichenomphalia oreades comb. nov., and the species redescribed and illustrated. Sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA (ITS rDNA) from the algae associated with two collections of L. oreades fell within a highly supported clade with members of an undetermined species of Coccomyxa. The most abundant algal ribosomal large subunit sequence from granules at the base of a different collection matched GenBank sequences identified as Chloroidium ellipsoideum, which is probably either a free-living algal species or a partner to a species of Trapeliopsis. The second most abundant sequence matched Coccomyxa subellipsoidea and is the most likely photobiont of L. oreades. Further studies are required to elucidate the relationship of L. velutina to these taxa.

Morphological characteristics and analyses of molecular sequence data (ITS, mtSSU) indicate that the austral-marine lichen Lichina pygmaea var. intermedia is distinct from the chiefly European marine species L. confinis and L. pygmaea. It is thus proposed to treat var. intermedia as a separate species. Lichina intermedia differs from L. confinis chiefly in the distinctly corticated branches, and deviates from L. pygmaea in the shorter and thinner branches. Diagnostic differences between the three species are summarized and distribution patterns discussed.

The new genus and species Ducatina umbilicata is described from Îles Crozet and Îles Kerguelen. This lichen is characterized by an umbilicate thallus with a black verrucose lower surface and a greyish to dark olivaceous smooth upper surface having large verrucae, large semi-immersed cephalodia, semi-immersed apothecia with a prominent thalline margin, simple, mainly ellipsoid ascospores of 23–42×12–25 µm and the presence of unknown chemical compounds. Phylogenetic analyses using nuLSU and mtSSU sequences place Ducatina in the Trapeliaceae (Baeomycetales). The new taxon is closely related to Orceolina antarctica and O. kerguelensis, two other lichens endemic to these subantarctic islands, differing by its morphology and the lack of chemical compounds. Ducatina is the only genus in the Trapeliaceae to develop a large umbilicate thallus.

Seventeen corticolous shrubby apotheciate Usnea species without vegetative propagules are reported from Brazil, including five species that are new to science: Usnea aurantiaca-parvula A. Gerlach & P. Clerc (characterized by an orange medulla and lageniform spinulose fibrils), U. cirrosa Motyka, U. cladocarpa Fée (syn. nov.: U. ramillosa Motyka), U. concinna Stirton (lectotype designated here, syn. nov. U. radiata Stirton, U. florida var. scabrosa Zahlbr.), U. cristatula Motyka, U. erinacea Vain., U. fleigiae A. Gerlach & P. Clerc (characterized by large spores and a thin, lax medulla), U. grandispora A. Gerlach & P. Clerc (characterized by large spores, a black base and protocetraric or salazinic acids in the medulla), U. kalbiana P. Clerc & A. Gerlach (characterized by a vitreous cortex and annular cracks in the basal part), U. lunaria Motyka, U. meridionalis Zahlbr. (syn. nov.: U. michauxii I. I. Tav.), Usnea cf. moreliana Motyka, U. parvula Motyka, U. steineri Zahlbr, U. subelegans (Vain.) B. de Lesd. (lectotype designated here), U. subparvula A. Gerlach & P. Clerc (characterized by spinulose fibrils and protocetraric acid in the medulla) and one as yet unidentified species (named Usnea sp. 1). Usnea cirrosa, U. cristatula and U. erinacea are new records for Brazil. A full description with morphological, anatomical (CMA and ascospores) and chemical features (TLC), as well as geographical distribution, is provided for each species along with an identification key to all species reported. Molecular data from the ITS rDNA, RPB1 and Mcm7 markers are present for most taxa, except for U. concinna, U. cristatula, U. kalbiana, U. lunaria, U. cf. moreliana and U. subelegans.

Four new species of Verrucaria are described from calcareous rocks in Finland based on morphology and ITS sequences. Verrucaria lapponica sp. nov. differs from V. cincta by the smaller perithecia, thinner periphysoids and occasional occurrence of pale exciple walls. Verrucaria sublapponica sp. nov. is related to V. lapponica but differs by a shorter involucrellum and larger spores. Verrucaria saanaensis sp. nov. differs from V. nuoljae (H. Magn.) comb. ined. by having larger spores and a fimbriate prothallus. Verrucaria othmarbreussii sp. nov. is closely related to V. tenebrica, but differs by the paler and thinner, less areolate thallus. The four species belong to the Staurothele group based on the BLAST search and the ITS phylogeny. All four species are rare in Finland and all except V. othmarbreussii seem to have a narrow ecogeographical niche on calcareous mountains above the tree line. Lichens restricted to these habitats may be especially sensitive to climate warming.

The genetic diversity within the foliose form of Ricasolia amplissima from Europe and North America was studied using molecular phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear ITS and RPB2, and mitochondrial SSU. Boundaries between closely related species were also examined using morphological and chemical patterns. Four species of the recently reinstated lichen genus Ricasolia De Not. were phylogenetically verified which necessitated a new combination, Ricasolia japonica (Asah.) Cornejo. Analyses suggest that the generic type taxon R. amplissima (Scop.) De Not. belongs to a species complex that shows two evolutionary centres, one in Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor and the Macaronesian Islands, the other from north-western North America on exposed shores of mainly forested marine islands in south-eastern Alaska, where it shows strong habitat specificity. The Alaskan lineage is very similar to the European lineage but it differs by the lack of scrobiculin and other chemical substances. It is described here as R. amplissima subsp. sheiyi Derr & Dillman.

Field survey by a taxonomist or specialist biologist (‘taxonomic survey’) provides a comprehensive inventory of species in a habitat. Common and conspicuous species are rapidly recorded and search effort can be targeted to inconspicuous or rare species. However, the subjective nature of taxonomic survey limits its usefulness in ecological monitoring and analysis. In contrast, ‘ecological sampling’, focused on the standardized use of repeated sub-units such as quadrats, is designed to quantify the observational error of results, allowing for more robust statistical treatment. Nevertheless, the spatial extent of recording will be lower during ecological sampling, and rarities might be missed. Despite their differences, these two approaches are often assumed to be congruent for decision making. Taxonomic survey is commonly used to identify priority sites for conservation (including species-rich sites, or those with many rare/threatened species) while ecological sampling is used to design conservation strategy by relating species richness or composition to habitat dynamics. If these contrasting approaches are indeed congruent, then trends in species richness and community composition, detected by ecological sampling, will mirror the results of taxonomic survey so that management confidently protects the attributes for which a site was prioritized. This study performed both taxonomic survey and ecological sampling for lichen epiphytes in 13 woodland study sites in Scotland. To understand the procedure of taxonomic survey, fieldwork by a professional taxonomist was structured by effort into 15-minute time intervals. As expected, taxonomic survey discovered more species per site, while ecological sampling (allowing a measure of species frequency) resolved greater variation in community composition. However, the patterns of richness and species composition obtained from the different methods were correlated, suggesting an overall high degree of congruence in identifying and then managing priority sites. Furthermore, when exploring the taxonomic survey in detail, we found that a minimum effort of 45 minutes was required to accurately determine species richness differences among contrasting woodland sites.

Phylogenetic analyses of nuclear (Mcm7, nrITS, nrLSU) and mitochondrial (mrSSU) DNA sequences revealed geographically disjunct lineages in Leptogium hibernicum. One of these lineages is described here as Leptogium krogiae, which differs from L. hibernicum in the thinner thallus (190–210 µm vs. 390–480 µm), shallowly striate lobes instead of deeply furrowed lobes, isidia that are seldom distinctly flattened, and apothecia with a subhymenial euparaplectenchymatous layer. Leptogium krogiae is a widespread epiphyte in mist-affected woodlands and montane forests in East Africa and appears to be a common species.