Leafing phenology of two dry-forest sites on soils of different depth (S = shallow, D = deep) at Shipstern Reserve, Belize, were compared at the start of the rainy season (April–June 2000). Trees ≥ 2.5 cm dbh were recorded weekly for 8 wk in three 0.04-ha plots per site. Ten species were analysed individually for their phenological patterns, of which the three most common were Bursera simaruba, Metopium brownei and Jatropha gaumeri. Trees were divided into those in the canopy (> 10 cm dbh) and the subcanopy (≤ 10 cm dbh). Site S had larger trees on average than site D. The proportion of trees flushing leaves at any one time was generally higher in site S than in site D, for both canopy and subcanopy trees. Leaf flush started 2 wk earlier in site S than site D for subcanopy trees, but only 0.5 wk earlier for the canopy trees. Leaf flush duration was 1.5 wk longer in site S than site D. Large trees in the subcanopy flushed leaves earlier than small ones at both sites but in the canopy just at site D. Large trees flushed leaves earlier than small ones in three species and small trees flushed leaves more rapidly in two species. Bursera and Jatropha followed the general trends but Metopium, with larger trees in site D than site S, showed the converse with onset of flushing 1 wk earlier in site D than site S. Differences in response of the canopy and subcanopy trees on each site can be accounted for by the predominance of spring-flushing or stem-succulent species in site S and a tendency for evergreen species to occur in site D. Early flushing of relatively larger trees in site D most likely requires access to deeper soil water reserves but small and large trees utilize stored tree water in site S.

Dominance of primary rain forests by the ectomycorrhizal, leguminous canopy tree Dicymbe corymbosa (Caesalpiniaceae) was investigated in the Pakaraima Mountains of western Guyana. In five 1-ha forest inventory plots in the Upper Ireng and Upper Potaro River drainages basal areas of D. corymbosa ranged from 38.4-52.8 m2 ha-1 (63-85% of total) among all trees ≥10 cm diameter at breast height (dbh), values in the upper range for tropical moist forests worldwide. The high basal areas for D. corymbosa were due to the prevalence of large (>150 cm dbh), multi-stemmed individuals. Stem densities in Dicymbe plots ranged from 276-433 ha-1, with D. corymbosa contributing 24.6-59.8%. In three 1-ha mixed forest plots adjacent to the Dicymbe plots, D. corymbosa was absent. In the mixed forests, stem densities were higher (480-585 ha-1), basal areas were lower (36.7-39.8 m2 ha-1), species diversity was higher, and canopy tree species were more equitably distributed than in the Dicymbe plots. Tree community composition was not qualitatively different between Dicymbe and mixed forests. In the Dicymbe plots, mean sapling and seedling densities of D. corymbosa were significantly higher than most other canopy species, indicating persistent monodominance. Edaphic variation did not account for variation in forest composition. Life history traits are discussed which may contribute to clumping in D. corymbosa, including coppicing and mast-fruiting, and the potential role of litter-trapping physiognomy and ectomycorrhiza-mediated nutrient dynamics in promoting monodominance is noted.

Tree characteristics were recorded from 2829 standing trees in 24 0.25-ha terra firme forest plots in central Amazonia, 3 y after a surface fire had swept through the study area. Sixteen of the plots were within forest that burnt for the first time at the end of the 1997-98 El Niño (ENSO) event, and the remaining eight plots were within unburnt primary forest. In order to investigate the morphological correlates of tree mortality, we measured tree diameter at breast height (dbh) and bark thickness, and recorded burn height, bark roughness and the presence of latex, resin and buttress roots. Leaf litter depth was also recorded at the base of all trees in the unburnt forest. Using logistic regression models, tree mortality was best explained by the burn height, although dbh and the presence of buttresses were also important. Buttressed trees were associated with deeper leaf litter accumulation at their bases and higher char heights than trees without buttresses. Moreover, trees surviving the fire had significantly thicker bark than living trees in unburnt forest plots, indicating that thin-barked trees are more prone to selective mortality induced by heat stress. Latex did not appear to have had any significant effects on mortality, though resins were less abundant amongst the live trees in the burnt forest than in the unburnt controls. Levels of fire-mediated tree mortality in this study are compared with those in other Amazonian forest regions in light of historical factors affecting tree resistance to fires.

Biological invasions are a major environmental concern due to their negative impacts on biodiversity and economics. We determined the population sizes and habitat-abundance relationships of the three most successful invasive bird species in Singapore: the house crow Corvus splendens, white-vented myna Acridotheres javanicus and common myna A. tristis. Estimated population sizes of the three species between February 2000 and February 2001 were between 106 000-176 000, 122 000-155 000 and 20 000-29 000, respectively. Population size of the house crow grew dramatically (>30-fold) in the last 15-16 y while that of the white-vented and common myna declined. Habitat-abundance relationships suggest that house crows are highly dependent on anthropogenic food. Their abundance was also positively related to proximity to coast. The common myna associated closely with agricultural areas while the white-vented myna probably preferred urban greenery among residential buildings. Our study shows that the three invasive bird species associated with different aspects of human-modified environment.

We consider whether species richness in canopy gaps in coastal scarp forest (South Africa) is constrained by competition for a limited number of available niches or is a chance effect of recruitment and dispersal limitation on species derived from the surrounding species pool. In so doing we confirm findings from relatively species-poor New Zealand Nothofagus forest. We investigate the contrasting roles of determinism and chance, and the putative assembly of woody plants in gaps, using a technique in which the species richness of small, replicate local assemblages (0.25–m2 quadrats) are sampled within regions (the surrounding gap) that vary in total species richness. The form of the regression of local species richness against regional species richness indicates the extent to which community assembly is under local-ecological control (niche limited). Species richness of local assemblages was not niche limited and increased as a constant proportion of the size of the species pool in a gap. We argue that, in general, species assembly in these forest gaps is chance-driven, and discuss the management implications this has for selective pole-harvesting in these forests.

Estimates of insectivorous bat diversity in the Palaeotropics have largely been hampered by the lack of long-term studies employing appropriate capture techniques. Using a variety of trapping methods, 45 insectivorous bat species were captured in approximately 3 km2 of primary dipterocarp rain forest in Malaysia over 8 y. The cumulative site list for Kuala Lompat Research Station, Krau Wildlife Reserve, now stands at 51 insectivorous species. Although this is likely still not a complete list, it is already one of the most species-rich in the world. We attribute much of our success in recording this diversity to the extensive use of harp traps. Of the 45 species, 38 were captured in an intensive harp-trapping programme (> 1030 harp-trap nights) of the forest interior (22 species exclusively so). Insectivorous bats of the forest interior are thus a key component of Old World bat diversity, particularly in South-East Asia, and are dominated by taxa capable of detecting and capturing prey in cluttered environments (Hipposideridae, Rhinolophidae, Kerivoulinae and Murininae).

The relationship between elephant damage and leaf nutrient concentration across tree species was investigated in a semi-arid savanna in western Zimbabwe with the purpose of investigating possible nutritional factors influencing elephant feeding preferences in Kalahari sand woodlands. The presence of elephant damage was recorded in all trees above 1 m in height, and leaf samples were collected from all tree species encountered in 12 vegetation plots during the late dry season. Elephant damage was positively correlated with leaf calcium, magnesium, potassium and protein concentration, but not with sodium, phosphorus or fibre. Tree species associated with sandy soils appeared to be less preferred by elephants and to have lower nutrient concentrations than species occurring on more fertile soils, such as species associated with termite mounds. Elephant damage may suppress recruitment in preferred tree species in these woodlands. This notion was supported by (1) the fact that 44% of all trees surveyed had had their main stems broken by elephants, a situation that leads to a multi-stemmed growth form with limited vertical growth; and (2) the negative correlation between the height of damaged trees and elephant damage across species.

Microhabitat use by tadpole species was investigated in streams of montane meadows of the Serra do Cipó, south-eastern Brazil. Microhabitats were classified into 24 types based on water depth, current, aquatic vegetation and substrate type, and quantified in 16 streams. A total of 844 tadpoles from 19 species was recorded, as well as microhabitat types used. Tadpoles, from all species pooled, used microhabitat types in the proportions available in the set of sampled streams. Diversity of microhabitats used was considered as a measure of niche breadth for tadpoles, and microhabitat diversity in streams was interpreted as available niche space. For the most part, species used microhabitats in different proportions, and conspecifics differed in microhabitat use among different streams. Neither niche breadths nor niche overlaps of tadpoles could be related to the number of species occupying streams. Thus not all available niche space may be occupied by tadpole species. More generalist species (those with broader niches) did not generally occupy more streams. Behavioural flexibility of tadpoles in microhabitat use may be a response to the unpredictability of the montane-meadow stream habitat. The role of adult anurans in choosing oviposition sites may also influence the distribution of tadpole species among streams.

Nutrient fluxes in stemflow and throughfall were compared among three successional stages of an upper montane rain forest and related to structural characteristics of the stands (stem density, leaf area, epiphyte abundance). An old-growth forest stand, an early successional (10-y-old) forest stand and a mid-successional (40-y-old) forest stand were studied in the Cordillera Talamanca, Costa Rica. All three sites were dominated by Quercus copeyensis with a variable admixture of other tree species. There was no difference in the average stand leaf area index between the old-growth forest and the early successional forest. A significantly higher leaf area was found in the mid-successional forest. There were large differences in litterfall from non-vascular epiphytes (mosses, liverworts and lichens) which reflected differences in epiphyte abundance, with highest values in the old-growth forest. Total nutrient transfer via stemflow and throughfall from the canopy to the soil showed only minor differences among the stands. The stands differed widely in the ratio of nutrient transport via stemflow to the total nutrient flux by water below the canopy. The K flux with stemflow accounted for 5% of the total in the old-growth forest but it accounted for 17% (early successional forest) and 26% (mid-successional forest) in the secondary forests. It is concluded that differences in canopy structure and epiphyte abundance in old-growth and secondary forests resulted in large differences in the partitioning of nutrient transport into stemflow and throughfall components although total nutrient transfers via water reaching the soil were similar.

The paper presents climatic and plant ecological data for unusually severe dry-season conditions on Mt. Elgon (Uganda/Kenya) and the Bale Mountains (Ethiopia). There is clear evidence that plants are exposed to desiccation stress during high-altitude droughts, which occur on average every 7-10 y in the study sites. Although high vapour-pressure deficits and consequently high potential evapotranspiration led to conspicuous wilting of several plant species, no lethal damage was observed and plant communities maintained increased flowering activity under drought conditions. Moreover, highest outposts of ericaceous vegetation were regularly found on thin soil covering rocky outcrops, where water stress apparently is high. Probably more important than direct water stress are the extensive fires occurring under drought conditions, which cause large-scale replacement of woody vegetation by grasslands. Additional consequences of drought include adverse conditions for seedling stablishment.

We conducted a survey of the epiphyte flora growing on the stilt palm Socratea exorrhiza in a primary lowland rain forest in Panama by means of a canopy crane. For each palm in a 0.9-ha plot, we determined diameter at breast height, tree height, per cent bryophyte cover and the number, identity and attachment site of all vascular epiphytes. The 118 palm trees hosted a total of 701 epiphytes and hemi-epiphytes, belonging to 66 species. Trees were estimated to be c. 20 y old before colonization with vascular epiphytes began. Epiphyte species were highly clumped and segregated along the vertical axis of the trunk. Sequential colonization led to an increased number of species and individuals as the tree grows. Epiphytes were associated with bryophyte patches much more than expected by chance, but no species seemed to depend upon them for establishment. The influence of tree size, age and bryophyte cover on the composition of the epiphyte community are discussed.

The otolith micro-increment technique was applied to assess the growth trajectory of early stages of the neotropical catfish Megalechis thoracata in Kaw Swamp, a coastal swamp in French Guiana, and two contrasting habitats in Suriname: the coastal Lelydorp Swamp with standing water and a rain-forest creek with running water, the Maykaboeka Creek. Daily deposition of increments on the lapilli was validated for the first 35 d after hatching and the innermost increments were deposited from hatching onwards. The natural habitats of M. thoracata in French Guiana and Suriname showed considerable variation in physico-chemical characteristics of the water, density of food organisms and fish fauna. Instantaneous growth rates and size-at-age differed significantly among two vegetation types in Kaw Swamp (3.5% d-1 and 4.1% d-1), Lelydorp Swamp (3.0% d-1) and Maykaboeka Creek (2.5% d-1). Spearman's rank correlation coefficient between instantaneous growth rates and environmental parameters differed significantly from 0 only for water temperature. Hatch date analysis revealed an extended spawning season from January to June in the rain-forest creek.

The species present, and the frequencies and intensities of termite attack on 600 paper baits exposed at the soil surface were compared over three seasonal exposures and between two savanna sites of contrasting vegetation structure in northern Australia. Eleven species were recorded, with Microcerotermes nervosus and Schedorhinotermes actuosus comprising 43% and 27% of collections respectively. The most commonly sampled species nest underground or build epigeal mounds and are known to feed on sound and decaying wood. Changes in species dominance occurred between seasons and the two forest types. In both vegetation types, the number of species active and the frequency of attack increased with the duration of bait exposure and decreased in the order: transitional > wet > dry. Bait consumption was greater in the site with higher canopy cover, and did not differ significantly between seasons. No direct relationships were noted between rainfall recorded at the sites and species richness, frequency and intensity of attack on baits. We recommend exposure of paper baits for at least 2 mo during the transitional period as the optimal protocol for sampling at the time of greatest activity and diversity of those species within the guild of wood-feeding species regularly attracted to paper baits.

We investigated the links between slope variation and heterogeneity in tree growth and stand structure. The study was conducted in an undisturbed wet evergreen forest in India. We selected three plots situated on gentle slopes and three plots situated on steep slopes. Tree growth was considered as mean annual diameter increment. Stand structure was considered in relation to several characteristics: trunk diameter distributions, tree heights, and spatial distributions of stems and crowns. Except for the spatial structure, analyses were performed on samples including either all the species or only the dominant species (Vateria indica L.). Diameter growth varied according to slope intensity and to tree size: growth of large trees was clearly higher on steep slopes whereas growth of small trees proved lower or similar. Diameter distributions were different among the six plots, but the difference cannot be related to slope intensity. On the contrary, tree heights differed according to slope intensity: for a given diameter, trees were taller on gentle slopes than on steep slopes. Finally, stem spatial distributions showed strong regularity on gentle slopes whereas they were random on steep slopes. The observed changes between gentle and steep slopes suggest differences at tree level through a modification of its shape, but also differences in the major processes responsible for stand dynamics: competition, establishment and survival.

Conversion of tropical evergreen forests to crops or pastures results in significant depletions of terrestrial carbon (C) pools. Root biomass and root C pools were quantified in tropical evergreen primary forest, and in secondary forests and pastures of different ages, in the Los Tuxtlas Region, Veracruz, Mexico. Total root biomass to 1-m depth ranged from 19 to 27 Mg ha-1 in primary forest, from 5.5 to 22.5 Mg ha-1 in secondary forests (8-, 20- and 30-y-old), and from 3.1 to 5.4 Mg ha-1 in pastures (12-, 20- and 28-y-old). Large roots (> 20 mm in diameter) were largely absent below 40 cm depth in secondary forests and pastures. Roots in the 0–40 cm soil depth represented 60–76% of the total root biomass in primary forest, 77–93% in secondary forests, and 89–96% in pastures. Root biomass comprised 4.7–6.2% of the total biomass in primary forests and between 6.8–8.5% in secondary forests. These low values, the relatively high concentration of roots in the top 40 cm of soil, and the shallow depth at which large roots occurred in secondary forests suggest forest susceptibility to natural disturbances. Root C pools ranged from 7.9 to 11.6 Mg ha-1 in primary forests, from 2.1 to 9.6 Mg ha-1 in secondary forests and from 1.0 to 1.9 Mg ha-1 in pastures. The estimated total ecosystem C pool in primary forest was 415 Mg ha-1, it ranged from 187-246 Mg ha-1 in secondary forests, and was 179 Mg ha-1 in pastures. Tropical forest conversion to pasture decreased the root C pool by nearly 80% and represented a 94% loss of C in ecosystem biomass. Absolute losses of root C were nevertheless small when compared with the above-ground C loss. Carbon distribution among ecosystem biomass components is key to adequately understanding the consequences of land-use/cover change on C dynamics in tropical regions.

Spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) detect sucrose at a threshold lower than any primate yet tested and prefer sucrose to glucose or fructose in laboratory tests. This preferential selection of sucrose led to the hypothesis that such acute discrimination is related to a diet of sucrose-rich fruits. Furthermore, it has been suggested that fruit sugars may be related to distinct guilds of vertebrate seed-dispersers. The objectives of this study were: (1) to test if spider monkeys select sucrose-rich fruits both within and among plant species and (2) to test the hypothesis that sugar concentration is related to bird, bat or monkey seed-dispersal syndromes. Data were collected from one troop of spider monkeys in south-western Costa Rica. Interspecific comparison of ingested fruits shows that spider monkeys consumed species with significantly higher concentrations of glucose and fructose than sucrose. Similarly, at the intraspecific level, food-fruits had significantly more fructose and glucose than non-food fruits, but no difference was found for sucrose. The three different sugar types were not correlated with the importance of the species in the diet based on the amount of time they spent consuming each species. Although sucrose concentrations were significantly higher in primate-dispersed species compared with those dispersed by other vertebrates, soluble carbohydrates in primate-dispersed fruits were principally composed of glucose and fructose. Neither fructose nor glucose concentrations showed significant differences across the three categories of seed dispersal.

The Hellshire Hills are an extensive area of tropical dry forest over limestone, located on the south coast of Jamaica. Despite being a protected area, they are subject to encroachment and clearance by charcoal burners, leaving a relatively pristine core within more disturbed areas of forest. Future management requires a consideration of the forest's resilience to such disturbance, and this study reports on seedling dynamics before and after different intensities of disturbance. The study was conducted within twelve 225-m2 plots comprising four blocks and three treatments. The treatments were removal of all trees (≥ 2 cm dbh), removal of 50% of stems (> 5 cm) and an uncut control plot. Seedling dynamics were monitored before and 3, 8, 13 and 20 mo after the application of treatments. The study indicates that regeneration by seed was not severely affected by this small-scale disturbance. However, the density of some species was affected by the environmental conditions created by partial and clear cutting, and seasonal effects were more pronounced after disturbance. Biomass recovery by seedlings was negligible in comparison with coppice regrowth which clearly offers considerable resilience to disturbance in this dry forest where successful regeneration by seed is highly susceptible to rainfall seasonality. This will likely affect long-term species diversity if the present rate of clearance continues.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi colonization and response were studied in seedlings of 80 native woody species belonging to different successional groups from the Tibagi River Basin, Paraná State, south Brazil. This study includes data from 43 native woody species already published. The results with 80 species did not differ from the results of the 43 species. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse in plastic bags filled with a mix of subsoil (85%) and sand (15%), inoculated or not with spores of native AM fungi obtained from rhizosphere soil of different native tree species in an area with natural vegetation dominated by woody pioneer species. The successional groups were represented by 16 pioneer, 20 early secondary, 29 late-secondary and 15 climax species. The AM response and colonization in the greenhouse were 5.9 and 4.2 times greater in the early successional species than in the late-successional species, respectively. Seedlings of 49 woody species were collected in the interior under the canopy of the tropical forest of the Mata dos Godoy State Park and in a cleared area dominated by woody pioneer species. The percentage of AM colonization in the field was 54.9, 40.4, 7.2 and 3.1 for the pioneer, early secondary, late-secondary and climax species, respectively. The response to AM inoculation was strongly and directly related to AM colonization in the greenhouse and field and inversely related to seed weight. The AM colonization in the greenhouse was strongly and directly related to AM colonization in field. The late-successional species showed lower AM colonization and response than early successional species. The accentuated mycotrophism of the early successional species may be involved in their establishment, growth, survival and early forest structuring on low-fertility soils.

Stable isotopes are commonly used in ecological studies to infer food resources (Ambrose & DeNiro 1986, Bocherens et al. 1990,1991,1994;Yoshinaga et al. 1991) since isotopic composition is conserved during the feeding process. Moreover,for herbivorous (sensu lato) species, it is often possible to identify the main resource because different photosynthetic pathways generate different values of carbon isotope ratios (Park & Epstein 1961, Sternberg et al. 1984). This allows the characterization of broad biota such as savannas or forest and discrimination of grazers from sympatric folivorous species (DeNiro & Epstein 1978).

Ants are important agents of seed dispersal and they can play a fundamental role in the establishment and survival of plants (Beattie 1985). Leaf-cutting or fungus-growing ants (Myrmicinae: Attini) are dominant elements of the ant fauna throughout the neotropics. They collect different types of vegetative and reproductive plant material that serve as substrate for underground fungus gardens,which are the only food source for their larvae (Stradling 1991).