We observed a period of famine in the lowland tropical rain forest of Sabah, Malaysia from August 1999 to September 2000. All six Malayan sun bears (Helarctos malayanus) that were captured and radio-collared were in poor physical condition, and two were later found dead. The physical condition of bearded pigs (Sus barbatus) that were captured, observed or photographed by camera traps also revealed that the pigs were in various stages of emaciation and starvation. We surmise that the famine resulted from prolonged scarcity of fruit during an intermast interval in the study area. These phenomena of emaciated animals and fruit scarcity have also been reported from other areas of Borneo. Lowland tropical rain-forest trees of Borneo display supra-annual synchronized general fruiting. We believe that the starvation we observed and the generally low density of large animals in Borneo forests is a consequence of a history of prolonged food scarcity during non-general-fruiting years, but may be accentuated by anthropogenic factors such as forest fragmentation, selective logging, and reduced density of fig trees in logged forests.

Germination of Acacia tortilis seeds strongly depends on micro-site conditions. In Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania, Acacia tortilis occurs abundantly in recently abandoned arable fields and in elephant-mediated gaps in acacia woodland, but does not regenerate in grass swards or beneath canopies. We examined the germination of Acacia tortilis using field and laboratory experiments. Seeds placed on top of the soil rarely germinated, while seeds covered with elephant dung or buried under the soil surface had a germination success between 23–43%. On bare soil 39% of both the dung-covered and buried seeds germinated, in perennial grass swards 24–43%, and under tree canopies 10–24% respectively. In laboratory experiments, seed water absorption correlated positively with temperature up to 41 °C, while subsequent germination was optimal at lower (21–23 °C) temperatures. Seeds that had absorbed water lost their viability when kept above 35.5 °C. The absence of light did not significantly influence germination success. Acacia tortilis does not actively disperse its seeds, but regeneration outside tree canopies was substantial. The regeneration potential thus strongly depends on the physiognomy of the vegetation.

The dependence of tree seedling survival and growth on light availability was evaluated over 15 mo in three second-growth, wet forest stands (15–18 y old) in north-eastern Costa Rica. Seedlings of four canopy tree species (Dipteryx panamensis, Hyeronima alchorneoides, Virola koschnyi and Vochysia guatemalensis) were planted into four canopy treatments in three replicated stands and in a pasture site, spanning a nearly complete gradient of light availability. Survival and growth of all species increased in response to increasing light availability, but species differed in survival in shaded microsites (6–20% light transmittance) and in growth increments per light increase. Hyeronima showed the highest mortality at low light levels and the highest relative height growth increase per light increase. In contrast, Virola showed high survival at low and moderate light, but showed the lowest leaf area and above-ground biomass per light increase among all species. Dipteryx and Vochysia maintained relatively high rates of survival and growth across the entire light gradient. Hyeronima and Virola showed trade-offs between growth and survival responses to light, unlike Dipteryx and Vochysia. Differences among species in seedling survival at low light may be determined by a variety of physiological and morphological traits that may or may not be mechanistically linked to growth responses.

Along eight forest–savanna transects at seven semi-deciduous forest islands in the southern Comoé National Park data on spatial distribution of tree-size classes and environmental parameters (fuel load, shading by upper tree layers, and soil depth) were collected. For dominant tree species, a sequential series was observed from the forest border into the forest interior. At the forest border, Anogeissus leiocarpus was the most abundant tree with juveniles (<1 cm dbh) reaching highest density values (mean of 502 individuals ha−1) at the outer periphery of the forests. Regression analysis of juveniles of dominant tree species and environmental parameters resulted in a separation of forest and savanna species. Forest tree species regenerated well at forest sites, but also in the shade of A. leiocarpus stands. We conclude that (1) the studied forest islands advance against savanna by sequential succession, and (2) A. leiocarpus has a high potential to regenerate at savanna–forest boundaries under moderate fire impact and on rather shallow soils. The potential of A. leiocarpus to act as an important pioneer in the replacement of savanna by forest due to its effective regeneration at savanna sites and subsequent modification of site conditions, especially fire intensity by shading out savanna grasses, is discussed.

In the Central Amazon we investigated whether seedling performance (survival, and relative growth rates in height and leaf numbers) was affected by initial seedling size (height and leaf numbers) in habitats that varied in their degree of human disturbance: cattle pasture, young secondary forest, 1-ha forest fragment and old-growth forest. Additionally, effects of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), litter standing crop (LSC) and insect herbivory were evaluated 12 mo after transplantation in seedlings from the native canopy trees Chrysophyllum pomiferum, Micropholis venulosa and Pouteria caimito. Seedling performance changed rank across the understorey environment depending on species. Seedlings of Chrysophyllum thrived in all conditions but under high PAR, Micropholis thrived only in intermediate light conditions, whereas Pouteria thrived under high PAR. Effects of initial seedling size, PAR and herbivory after 1 y were specific to species, whereas LSC had no effect on performance. Initially larger seedlings resulted in lower survival for Chrysophyllum and Pouteria. Herbivory affected seedling performance in all species. Negative effects of herbivory were intensified under low PAR. Overall, our results showed that, as seedlings, species of the same family and characteristic of old-growth forests respond differently to the environmental constraints present in contrasting human-disturbed conditions. Larger seedlings may not always present greater tolerance to physical and biotic mortality risks.

Patterns of leaf phenological diversity were documented in nine key tree species of a tropical deciduous forest in the Vindhyan region of India. Monthly leaf counts on 160 tagged twigs on ten individuals of each species were made through two annual cycles. Tree species exhibited a gradient of deciduousness (∼leafless duration), ranging from semi-evergreen species (entire population never becoming leafless) to 7-mo-deciduous species. The semi-evergreen species initiated leaf flush (bud break of vegetative bud) earlier around the spring equinox. In all deciduous tree species synchronous leaf-flush initiation, with low inter-annual variability, occurred during the hot dry summer (May–June, day temperature >40 °C), prior to the onset of the rainy season. Based on the quantification of leafless period, leaf-flush duration, and leaf strategy index (leaf-flush rate/leaf-fall rate, proposed in this study) in different species, four plant functional types were recognized: (a) semi-evergreen, spring flushing, showing leaf exchange, with mean leafless period 8 d, leaf-flush duration 6–7 mo and leaf strategy index <0.5 (Shorea robusta); (b) <2-mo-deciduous, summer flushing, leafless period 3–8 wk, leaf-flush duration 5–6 mo, and leaf strategy index >0.5−<0.7 (Anogeissus latifolia, Diospyros melanoxylon and Hardwickia binata); (c) 2–4-mo-deciduous, summer flushing, leafless period 2–3 mo, leaf-flush duration 4–5 mo, and leaf strategy index >0.8−<1.0 (Acacia catechu, Lagerstroemia parviflora and Terminalia tomentosa); and (d) >4-mo-deciduous, summer flushing, leafless period >4–7 mo, leaf-flush duration 3–4 mo, and leaf strategy index 1.0 (Boswellia serrata and Lannea coromandelica). Conspecific trees showed asynchrony with respect to leaf-flush completion, initiation and completion of leaf-fall, and extent of leafless period. Leaf strategy index (indicating rate of resource use and conservation) was strongly related with the leafless period in different species (r=0.82) and can serve as a useful index in leaf phenological studies and classification of plant functional types.

Major components of the flux density of global photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) were measured above and within canopies in a tropical deciduous forest on the Pacific coast of Mexico. At each of 69 locations grouped along a topographic sequence the PAR reflected from the top of the canopy, the vertical profile of transmittance, and the reflectance from the ground, were measured as many as four times in the year, including the extremes of the wet and dry seasons. With these observations an annual balance of the portion of PAR radiation reflected and absorbed by the canopy and ground was assembled and the detailed spatial and temporal dynamics of PAR within canopy layers were estimated. Canopy stature declined along the topographic sequence and the shape of the transmittance profiles reflected this. In locations of declining moisture availability the fraction of PAR absorbed by the ground increased and the fraction absorbed by non-foliar tissues decreased. Seasonal variation in canopy structure was the dominant influence on the partitioning of radiation – spatial variation was less important. Of a total annual PAR input of 15 200 mol m−2, about 95% of incident PAR was absorbed, 50% by leaves, 25% by non-foliar tissues and 20% by the ground. The remaining 5% was reflected by the top of the canopy.

Resource partitioning between elephant, giraffe, kudu and impala was assessed. This was to address concerns that elephant population increase adversely affects other species through depleting their food in key areas close to permanent water. Resources considered were woody species browsed, height browsed and plant parts browsed. Animals were observed as they browsed and the plant species, browsing heights and plant parts browsed were recorded. Observations were made over 1 y and the data were divided between wet and dry season. Schoener's index of resource use overlap was calculated for plant species, browsing heights and plant parts eaten and differences in overlap between wet and dry season were tested. Levin's measure of niche breadth in plant species utilized by the different browsers was calculated. Woody species identity was the main separator between food resources that elephant used and those giraffe, impala and kudu used. Giraffe, kudu and impala mainly browsed the same species and plant parts but browsed at different heights. There was no difference in resource use overlap between seasons with different resource availability. Since elephant browsed different woody species from those browsed by the others, it is unlikely that the increasing elephant population will deplete food resources for the other browsers.

This study describes forest succession following slash-and-burn agriculture in central Amazonia, based on four chronosequences (22 sites) of 2- to 25-y-old secondary regrowth and mature forest. Biomass accumulated in the form of a saturation curve: 25 y of regrowth restored half of the mature-forest biomass, 75% would be restored after an estimated 175 y. Biomass accumulation was accompanied by a rapid decrease in woody plant density and an increase of the positive skew of plant size distribution. Liana biomass share declined from 5.0% in young to 1.9% in old regrowth, and 1.3% in mature forest, whereas the share of palms was low (0.5%) in young regrowth and high in old regrowth (1.8%) and mature forest (2.2%). 25-y-old regrowth was similar with mature forest in respect to woody plant density and growth-form composition, but both the plant size distribution and the number of stems per plant differed strongly from mature forest. A moderate increase in land use had only minor effects on biomass accumulation, but profoundly changed structural characteristics of regrowth, pointing to a high vulnerability to degradation. Thus, the sustainability of slash-and-burn in central Amazonia may be lower than the rapid initial biomass accumulation would make it seem.

Drip-tips are a common phenomenon in tropical rain forests, often believed to facilitate drainage of water from the leaf surface and, in that way, reduce epiphyll growth. Some authors suggest a function in reducing splash soil erosion, leaching of substances from the leaf, and light reflectance, while other studies did not find any such correlations. We used an experimental approach to test for the effect of drip-tips on the development of epiphyllous lichen communities. Artificial leaves with and without pronounced drip-tips were exposed in a tropical lowland rain forest at La Selva Biological Station (Costa Rica) for a period of 38 mo, and the physical behaviour of rainwater was tested. On leaves with drip-tips, the water ran off in small, frequent drops 8–30 mm3 in size. On leaves without drip-tips, the water accumulated in the apex region and dripped off periodically in large drops 50–150 mm3 in size. Nevertheless, there was no significant difference in the development of epiphyllous lichen communities on leaves with and without drip-tips, in terms of area covered, species richness and composition. However, leaves without drip-tips had more debris accumulated in the apex region and, at the same time, fewer lichen species present in this region. Thus, while drip-tips do have an influence on how water is channelled off the leaf surface, they do not impair the development of epiphyllous lichen communities, except for the apex region where the presence of drip-tips does in fact enhance, not reduce, the establishment of lichens, by preventing the accumulation of debris. We conclude that, while drip-tips may have an ecological function, this function is unrelated to the development of epiphyllous lichen communities.

Plant productivity, distribution and diversity in tropical rain forests correlate with water availability. Water availability is determined by rainfall and also by the available water capacity of the soil. However, while rainfall is recognized as important, linkages between plant distribution and differences among soils in available water capacity have not been demonstrated. One reason for this may be that measurements of soil moisture, such as gravimetric water content, may be overly simplistic. To investigate this, we compared two sites in Panama, Allee and Rio Paja, which have similar rainfall but different plant communities. Soil water release curves were obtained from about −0.1 MPa to −9 MPa, permitting us to calculate available water capacity. The Rio Paja site had 17% greater available water capacity (between −0.1 MPa to −3 MPa), whereas the gravimetric water content at Rio Paja was lower by 16% in rainy season and by 41% at the end of the dry season. Hence soil gravimetric water content and soil available water capacity did not correspond. The results suggest that available water capacity may better predict plant distributions. Hence, whenever possible, available water capacity should be determined in addition to gravimetric water content.

The diversity, abundance and frequency of vascular epiphytes on the lower trunk were compared between two host groups of a Mexican cloud forest: angiosperm trees (n = 72) and tree ferns (n = 28). The bark of the five most frequent host trees and the root mantle of the two tree ferns were analysed for their thickness, water content, water retention capacity and pH. A total of 55 epiphyte species and 910 individuals were found on the 27 host species. On hosts with a dbh range of 5–10 cm, epiphytes were significantly more diverse (4.3±0.9 species per host) and more abundant (12.5±2.2 individuals per host) on tree ferns than on angiosperm trees (1.9±0.2 species per host and 3.9±0.6 individuals per host). However, these differences were not significant for the dbh class of 10–20 cm, because epiphyte numbers increased on angiosperm trees with larger host size, but not in tree ferns. Most epiphyte species had no preference for any host group, but four species were significantly more frequent on tree ferns and two species on angiosperm trees. The higher epiphyte diversity and abundance on tree fern trunks of the smallest dbh class is attributed to their presumably greater age and to two stem characteristics, which differed significantly between host groups, the thicker root mantle and higher water retention capacity of tree ferns. These bark characteristics may favour germination and establishment of epiphytes.

Dioecious plant species differ in floral morphology and rewards between females and males. Pistillate flowers on female plants often lack pollen and can be less attractive to pollinators, which can have consequences for the visitation rates of the sexes. We studied the pollination ecology of the dioecious tree Commiphora harveyi in a coastal scarp forest in eastern South Africa. Floral display, visiting insect species, visitation rate and natural fruit set were recorded. Additionally, we pollinated flowers by hand to determine experimental fruit set. We found that male trees had more and larger flowers per inflorescence than female trees. Both sexes produced nectar in low amounts. During 203.5 h of observation we recorded 28 insect species visiting the flowers. No difference in mean visitation rate (0.20 visits per flower h−1) was recorded between the sexes. The daily and seasonal pattern was similar between the sexes. The natural fruit set was low (3.8%) and increased significantly with hand-pollination (45.5%), an indication of pollen limitation. We compared our results with the pollination ecology of C. guillauminii in Madagascar, a dioecious tree species on an island with a depauperate pollinator fauna. This comparison revealed a similar pattern with low visitation rates, low insect diversity and low fruit set, suggesting that this pattern may be more common in dioecious tree species than previously reported in the literature.

Sexes and also within sex phenotypes, frequently differ in morphological traits associated with efficiency and performance in foraging and mating behaviours. In butterflies and other flying animals, phenotypic differences in wing size and traits associated with flight are involved in flight performance and individual fitness, but explorations of links among two or more traits and intrasexual differences are scarce. Foraging patterns were studied in a population of Heliconius charitonia butterflies having three phenotypes (females and two male phenotypes) which differ in their wing morphology and reproductive behaviour. As in previous studies, intersexual differences in foraging patterns were found; more interestingly, intrasexual differences were found between alternative male mating strategies. Using morphological and behavioural data, as well as data from previous flight analyses in Heliconius butterflies, we show that intrasexual differences may be explained by the energetic demands of each phenotype. Energetic expenditure is partially related to phenotypic variability in flight morphology and efficiency, and at least in both male phenotypes, differences may also be related to the energetic demands of alternative mating strategies.

In mid-elevation areas of Mesoamerica, Acacia pennatula commonly occurs in mixed woods with various species of oak. During a 1-y study in Nicaragua, we found the abundance of birds in acacia was far higher than the representation of this species in the mix of trees, whether this is estimated by number of individual trees, canopy cover or foliage cover. This higher abundance was probably related to the fact that acacias supported approximately three to four times the abundance of arthropods that were found in oaks and twice the biomass. Although oak foliage supported fewer arthropods, relatively more of them were large (>1 cm). The greater preponderance of small arthropods in acacias versus oaks was probably related to the small leaflet size of acacias. However, it is likely that the higher abundance of arthropods in acacias, particularly herbivorous species, was related to the higher nutritional content of the acacia foliage (crude protein, minerals, non-structural carbohydrates) and lower content of digestion-inhibiting compounds (structural carbohydrates, total phenolics, condensed tannins). The major defensive mechanisms of acacia are mechanical (thorns) or qualitative-defence chemicals (cyanogenic glucosides) that are apparently more effective against vertebrate than invertebrate herbivores. These observations support the hypothesis that the anti-herbivore defences of acacia are primarily directed against large mammalian herbivores, rendering the foliage highly palatable to arthropods.

The relationships between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and root morphological characteristics were studied under greenhouse conditions of 78 tropical native woody species and 47 seedling species collected in the field. Seedlings of native woody pioneer and early secondary species that generally exhibited fine roots with a dense cover of long root hairs showed higher mycorrhizal response and root mycorrhizal colonization than late-secondary and climax species with coarse roots with a sparse cover of short root hairs. Root-hair length and incidence decreased with the progression among the successional groups while fine-root diameter increased, both in the greenhouse and in the field. The mycorrhizal response was highly correlated to root mycorrhizal colonization in the greenhouse and in the field. These parameters were inversely correlated with the seed mass and fine-root diameter, but directly correlated with root-hair incidence, both in the greenhouse and in the field. Mycorrhizal response and root mycorrhizal colonization were also directly correlated with the root-hair length and root/shoot ratio of uninoculated plants. The seedling mycorrhizal status of the early successional woody species suggests that the root traits of these fast-growing species can be more receptive to attraction, infection and colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizas than root traits of late-successional species.

We used traps baited with fruit to examine how the temporal variation of butterflies within primary forest in Sabah, Borneo differed between species. In addition, we compared patterns of temporal variation in primary and selectively logged forest, and we tested the hypothesis that selective logging has different recorded impacts on species diversity of adults during the wet monsoon period and the drier remaining half of the year. Species of Satyrinae and Morphinae had significantly less-restricted flight periods than did species of Nymphalinae and Charaxinae, which were sampled mainly during the drier season, especially in primary forest. Species diversity of adults was significantly higher during the drier season in primary forest, but did not differ between seasons in logged forest. As a consequence, logging had opposite recorded impacts on diversity during wetter and drier seasons: primary forest had significantly higher diversity than logged forest during the drier season but significantly lower diversity than logged forest during the wetter monsoon season. The results of this study have important implications for the assessment of biodiversity in tropical rain forests, particularly in relation to habitat disturbance: short-term assessments that do not take account of seasonal variation in abundance are likely to produce misleading results, even in regions where the seasonal variation in rainfall is not that great.

We tested whether species endemic to Sri Lanka were less able than non-endemics to tolerate disturbed habitats. Small mammals were surveyed in four habitat types along a disturbance gradient (unlogged forest, selectively logged forest, cultivated areas and areas abandoned after cultivation) within and around the Sinharaja rain forest in south-west Sri Lanka. Twenty 90-m×40-m plots were live trapped in each of these habitat types. Twelve taxa: nine rodents (Srilankamys ohiensis, Rattus rattus kelaarti, R. r. kandianus, Mus mayori, M. cervicolor, Bandicota indica, Funambulus layardi, F. sublineatus and F. palmarum) and three insectivores (Crocidura miya, Suncus zeylanicus and Feroculus feroculus) were recorded. Of these, five were endemic to Sri Lanka at the species level (species confined to the island) and six at subspecies level (subspecies confined to the island; other subspecies occurring on the Indian subcontinent). Species richness of small mammals decreased with the magnitude of forest disturbance. The endemic species selectively utilized sites within the forest whilst the majority of the other taxa used both forest and non-forest habitat types or were restricted to the latter. Bird surveys were carried out in the same plots, using sightings and calls. Sixty-six bird species were recorded, of which 21 were endemic species. Twenty endemic bird species preferentially used sites within the forest. The findings suggest that the forest-dwelling endemic species of both small mammal and bird encounter difficulties in tolerating modified landscapes, whilst other taxa are less affected. This highlights the vulnerability of endemic species to forest conversion.

Animal-pollinated angiosperm plants that replenish removed nectar invest energy that can entail a reproductive cost. Here we investigated whether or not seed production is affected by replenishing nectar in hummingbird-pollinated Tillandsia multicaulis and T. deppeana (Bromeliaceae) in a montane cloud forest in eastern Mexico. These epiphytic plants respond strongly and positively to repeated nectar removal. The female reproductive cost was assessed in manually, cross-pollinated flowers with or without repeated nectar removal. Seed production from experimental flowers was then contrasted with those naturally exposed to pollination and nectar removal. Tillandsia deppeana set the same number of seeds of the same size regardless of whether or not it had to replenish nectar. Seeds were slightly smaller if the result of natural open pollination than from copious hand crossing. In contrast, T. multicaulis set about half as many seeds when it had to replenish than when it did not, indicating a substantial cost to replenishment. There was no difference in seed number of T. multicaulis between open and hand-augmented pollination. The contrasting results for plants that respond strongly and positively to repeated nectar removal suggest that the female reproductive costs of nectar replenishment can range from costly to beneficial, depending on the conditions of the plants and on the species.

Larvae of Plagiometriona aff. flavescens carry a structure on their back made of faeces and exuviae, called faecal shield, which may protect larvae against natural enemies. Previous investigations suggested that the nature of such protection was chemical. To test if chemicals found in the faecal shield of Plagiometriona aff. flavescens provided defence for larvae, experiments in the field and in the laboratory (using the ant Camponotus crassus, and chicks Gallus gallus as model predators) were undertaken. Both field and laboratory experiments showed that live larvae with faecal shields, as well as baits treated with faecal shield extracts, were rejected by predators, confirming the chemical nature of this kind of defence.