Two genetic strains of white turkeys were reared together in a large flock under conditions allowing optimal growth from hatching to 20 weeks. Birds of both strains followed similar growth curves with males of both strains growing heavier than females. In one strain, however, the yield of breast meat as a proportion of live weight was greater in both males (287 v. 225 g/kg) and females (276 v. 201 g/kg). When expressed in ratio to breast width, maximum meat depth was greater in the strain which yielded the higher proportion of breast meat. However, with this index of breast plumpness, females scored higher than males in both strains (high yield, 0·45:1·00 v. 0·37:1·00; low yield, 0·33:1·00 v. 0·31:1·00). In the superficial anterior region of the pectoralis muscle in both strains and sexes, there were strong adenosine triphosphatase and weak succinate dehydrogenase reactions in nearly all muscle fibres. Differences in the radial growth of muscle fibres were found between the two strains and, by 20 weeks, birds of the lower yield strain had reached only 0·85 (males) or 0·82 (females) of the mean diameters attained in birds of the higher yielding strain.

Soil surface moisture is a dominant factor influencing the establishment of surface sown seed, but its measurement is difficult. A cobalt chloride (CoCl2) saturated paper strip (20×5 mm) technique was developed as a cheap but sensitive indicator of soil surface moisture. The influence of soil surface moisture on the seedling survival of three oversown legume species, subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L. cv. Karridale), strawberry clover (T.fragiferum L. cv. Grasslands Onward) and Caucasian clover (T. ambiguum Bieb. cv. Monaro) was investigated in a glasshouse and a field experiment at Palmerston North, New Zealand, between 1 October and 30 November 1993. Intact sods were sprayed with glyphosate, placed in plastic trays (420×300×50 mm) and transferred to the glasshouse or field. Three soil surface moisture treatments were imposed in the glasshouse. In the field trial, the plastic trays were buried flush with the soil surface in contact with the subsoil and exposed to natural wind and rainfall. Bare seed was oversown in a 20 × 20 mm grid and then pushed into the soil with a roller studded with metal rods to simulate treading by sheep. The low soil surface moisture treatment and the field trial had the lowest seedling survival. The main cause for this was low surface moisture caused by wind, which hindered radicle entry into the soil. Subterranean clover was less susceptible to low surface moisture and had better net seedling survival in all the treatments than the other two legume species.

A study was conducted to compare field crops and varieties grown at the Kufra Agricultural Project, Libya, and the Imperial Valley Field Station, El Centro, California. Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), wheat (Triticum octivum L.), sudangrass (Sorghum bicolor Moench) were grown at both locations in 1969–70.

Yield studies at Kufra, Libya, and the Imperial Valley Field Station indicated that the crop performances were equally well adapted at both locations. Lucerne yields were higher at Kufra, which may have been due to more moderate temperatures and less salt in soil and water at Kufra. Low yields in some of the other crops at Kufra such as wheat may be due to inexperience and inadequate fertilizers. Newly developed varieties for Imperial Valley should be adapted to the Kufra area.

A number of mutant lines showing different levels of improved quantitative resistance to bacterial leaf blight (BLB) were obtained through selection of plants or lines derived from seeds of the rice cultivar Harebare exposed to thermal neutrons and gamma-rays. The selections were made on M2–M4 materials under natural BLB-epidemic conditions and/or by artificial inoculation of one of the BLB isolates. Bacterial isolates predominating under the natural conditions were identified as belonging to the differential BLB isolate group I, and the isolates of this group were used in the artificial inoculation for selection of mutants. The selected M4 mutant lines were tested in M5 for BLB resistance by artificial inoculations of four differential bacterium isolates, groups I, II, III and IV. The M6 mutant lines showed quantitatively elevated resistances to the isolate of bacterium group I and also to the other three differential isolates. Analysis of variance of the data demonstrated that the observed elevated quantitative resistances of the mutants to the isolates I, II, III and IV were isolatespecific. Host-parasite interactions in quantitative resistance to BLB and their modification by induced mutations are discussed.

The fungicidal properties of the insoluble copper compounds, present in Bordeaux mixtures, have long been known, and it is an important point to ascertain the precise manner in which the poisonous action is exerted. A variety of theories have been put forward, but the matter cannot be regarded as settled. It has been generally accepted that, in order to account for the fungicidal action, it is necessary to look for some means by which the insoluble copper in Bordeaux mixture is rendered soluble when the material is sprayed on to foliage. Atmospheric carbon dioxide has frequently been suggested as the most important agent by which this is effected, and recently this view has been urged by Mr S. U. Pickering, F.R.S., who has also investigated in detail, the chemical nature of the compounds found in Bordeaux mixtures.

Previous work has shown that the technique of laparoscopy in anaesthetized ewes is a practical and reasonably accurate method for the diagnosis of pregnancy between 17 and 28 days after conception and for estimating numbers of foetuses (Phillippo et al. 1972). This method in common with other reported endoscopic techniques for sheep positions the animal on its back, necessitating the use of either general anaesthesia (Roberts, 1968; Boyd & Ducker, 1973) or tranquillization and local anaesthesia (Kelly & Allison, 1976). These methods have the disadvantages of the necessity to withhold food and water for up to 24 h prior to surgery and the risk associated with general anaesthesia and the positioning of the animal. A new procedure with the sheep standing was therefore developed from the method used in cows (Mariana, 1969; Wishart & Snowball, 1973).

Digestibility trials were carried out with five individuals each of domesticated oryx, sheep and cattle, using three diets ranging from 12·5 to 7·4% crude protein. Feed intake, water consumption and urine production were measured.

Intakes of dry matter (as g/day or g/kg W0·75/day) did not differ between diets for any species. On a metabolic weight basis the sheep and oryx ate the same amount. The cattle ate more than the sheep of all three diets, and more than the oryx in two of the three.

For all three species, digestibility of dry matter, crude protein and crude fibre was lower when the lower quality food was given. On any single diet, significant differences in digestive efficiency for any diet component between species were few and small.

Total daily intakes of water (ml/kg W0·85/day) were lower for each species when eating the diet with the lowest protein content. On each diet total intakes were significantly different in the decreasing order cattle > sheep > oryx, in the mean ratio 3·3:l·7:10.

Urine production (ml/kg W0·85/day) varied slightly between diets for each species. On each diet the cattle produced significantly more urine than the sheep or oryx. The ratio of urine produced to water drunk decreased in the order oryx > cow > sheep, in the mean ratios 0·63, 0·34 and 0·27. Despite some interspecific differences in nitrogen concentration, there were few differences in the proportion of total excreted nitrogen that was lost through the urine.

Calculations of evaporative water loss showed that loss of water by this avenue was significantly less in oryx than in sheep or cattle, which did not differ significantly.

In the absence of any evidence of a more efficient digestion, the low metabolic intake of food by oryx suggests a low metabolic rate. The oryx's low water consumption and small evaporative loss are obvious adaptations to its desert habitat.

(1) Soil surveys are classified into (i) preliminary reconnaissance surveys, (ii) broad ecological surveys, (iii) detailed physiological-ecological surveys, and (iv) special-purposes surveys. The objects of each are briefly discussed.

(2) Particular consideration is given to the methods of physiological ecology, which attempt to assess the chief soil factors controlling plant growth.

(3) Soil factors are grouped into (A) static factors, which do not fluctuate appreciably during a growing season, and (B) dynamic factors that may exhibit marked fluctuations within a season, or during years when climatic conditions vary.

Parametric approaches have been used widely to model animal growth and study the impact of growth profile on performance. Individual variation is often not considered in such approaches. However, non-parametric modelling allows this. Such an approach, based on spline functions, was used to study the importance of growth profiles from age 0 to 15 months (i.e. insemination) on milk yield and composition in primiparous cows. A dataset of 447 heifers was used for analysis of growth performance; 296 of them were also used to study impact on lactation. All of them originated from a French experimental herd and were born between 1986 and 2006. Clustering methods were also tested. Comparison of spline methods showed that a cubic spline interpolation method, with no smoothing parameter, was best suited to studying heifer growth. Similarly, partitioning around medoids proved the most accurate clustering method for classifying heifer growth into groups. The results of these analyses agreed with those previously published, supporting the utility of these methods. A final study on the impact of breakdowns in the growth curves was performed. A breakdown was considered only when the derivative of the interpolation function was negative or zero. Of the 447 heifers initially used, 125 (Gr0), 175 (Gr1) and 147 (Gr2) had no, one, or two or more breakpoints during the 0–15 months of age period. Milk yield on a 305 d basis was significantly reduced with an increased number of breakpoints (6548 v. 6828 and 6905 kg for Gr2, Gr1 and Gr0 animals, respectively). Fat content was also higher in Gr2 than in Gr0 groups, but overall, no difference in total fat or protein-corrected milk production was noted. The intersection between groups for growth and groups for breakdowns confirmed that animals with two or more breakdowns belonged more frequently to the group with the lowest growth performance. These results offer the possibility of analysing large databases, originating from an automatic collecting system (e.g. milking robots) or from different herds, breeds, genetics, etc. These approaches could also be used for studies on body score index, girth development, lactation profiles, etc. and in other species, such as dairy goats or beef cattle. They could find use in the development of new models of prediction, e.g. the probability of heat appearance on an animal basis, which could be included among useful management tools.

This study aims to determine the effects of dietary crude protein (CP) content of early-weaned calves; and the influence of flint maize processing methods on intake, total tract nutrient digestibilities and performance of Nellore heifer calves. Fifteen early-weaned Nellore female calves (4 ± 0.5 months; 108 ± 13.1 kg) were used. In phase 1, animals were fed one of the following diets for 112 days: 130, 145 or 160 g CP/kg dry matter (DM). In phase 2, animals received one of the two diets for 84 days: 0.60 dry ground maize grain, 0.30 whole-plant maize silage plus 0.10 mineral-protein supplement or 0.90 snaplage plus 0.10 mineral-protein supplement. In phase 1, intake and digestibility of dietary components were not affected (P > 0.05) by increasing dietary CP content. Daily total urinary nitrogen (N) and urinary urea N increased (P < 0.05) in response to increasing dietary CP content. Animal performance was not affected (P > 0.05) by dietary CP content. In phase 2, maize processing methods did not affect (P > 0.05) intake and digestibility of dietary components as well as animal performance, carcase characteristics and carcase composition. Therefore, based on the current experimental condition, we conclude that dietary CP concentrations of 130 g/kg DM can be indicated for early-weaned Nellore calves. However, more studies are recommended to validate this result and to evaluate concentrations below 130 g CP/kg DM for early-weaned Nellore calves. Moreover, snaplage could be used as an exclusive fibre and energy source for finishing cattle in feedlot.

To identify separate effects of gender, castration and exogenous oestrogen on growth, castrated lambs of both sexes and entire male lambs (n = 8) were implanted subcutaneously with three sizes of oestradiol-17β implants, or not implanted, and grazed on ryegrass and white clover pasture for 180 days. A group of non-implanted entire female lambs (n = 8) was run together with the others. Non-implanted entire male lambs grew faster, had heavier heads, less internal, non-carcass fat and more protein and less fat and water in the carcass than non-implanted entire females. In addition, they had higher 12th vertebral spine, thicker tibia, and heavier and larger humerus than entire female lambs. Castration of male lambs reduced live-weight gain, weight of head and content of protein in the carcass whereas it increased carcass fat content. In addition, it caused lengthening of cannon bones and reduced height of 12th vertebral spine and length of tibia. In females, gonadectomy increased height of 12th vertebral spine and diameter to length ratio of the radius. Oestradiol treatment increased live-weight gain, reduced total internal and carcass fat, and increased water and protein content of the carcass in gonadectomized animals of either sex, and increased weight of carcass and head in spayed ewe lambs. Oestradiol treatment inhibited longitudinal growth of cannon bones and stimulated that of vertebral column and ribs, but had little effect on the dimensions of limb bones apart from increasing their diameter. Oestradiol treatment had no effect on muscle length but increased muscle girth and weight, except for m. splenius in ram lambs where muscle weight was reduced. Effects of oestradiol on skeletal measurements in most cases were linearly related to dose of oestradiol. It was concluded that the variable effects of sex steroids on the skeleton were related to the differential pattern of skeletal maturation. In early maturing bones acceleration of the growth process by an exogenous sex steroid caused elongation to cease prematurely, whereas in late-maturing bones the acceleration effect on elongation did not result in premature cessation. This observation may explain the often contradictory reports in the literature on the effects of sex steroids on linear growth of bone.

Phenological development and its variation during reproductive growth have important effects on the yield and quality of forage grasses. In perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) genetic variation in heading date is well recognized, but there are no reliable studies about the variability in the length of the stem elongation phase. To determine the variation in phenological traits of single plants of perennial ryegrass genotypes, a field trial was conducted over three growing seasons (2011–2013) using plant material from eight different ecotype populations, sampled from old permanent grassland swards in Northern Germany. In addition to the phenological stages of jointing, heading and flowering, the critical phase of stem elongation was considered as a new phenological trait. It was hypothesized that the length of the critical phase between jointing and heading differs significantly among genotypes and thus offers a new tool for selecting for specific purposes, e.g. adaption to changing climatic conditions, cutting or grazing as well as yield and quality. The study revealed significant genotypic variation in the observed traits, which was highest for the critical phase (GCV = 0·21). Moderate heritability in jointing (h2 = 0·72) revealed a large environmental impact. In contrast, high heritability (h2 > 0·86) in heading, flowering and the critical phase imply a strong genetic effect. Moderate to high genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of correlation revealed a substantial linkage among the phenological traits. Results are discussed in the context of providing different approaches and strategies in forage crop production, especially with regard to regional weather conditions and future climate change. Significant differences among the tested ecotype populations indicate that existing diversity in permanent grassland can provide source material for further progress in grass breeding.

Woodchip pads can be a sustainable alternative to the overwintering of stock on grassland or in conventional housing and can offer benefits in improved animal performance, improved health and environmentally sustainable options for the management of the effluent resulting from the animal excreta (dung, urine and rainfall over the pad). Detailed observations were made on effluent flow and quality from woodchip pads on two commercial farms in the UK, one in Powys (Wales) and the other in Leicestershire (England), over a period of 8 months in 2009/10. Flow data and hydrological characteristics, reported in the companion to the current paper (Jackson & Smith 2012), were combined with the results of effluent sample and soiled woodchip analyses, together with records of animal numbers and activity on the pads, to calculate nutrient fluxes and nutrient balances across the pad for defined periods. Nutrient balances showed that, of the estimated nutrient inputs in animal excreta deposited on the pad, only 0·05–0·10 of the N and P were contained in the effluent draining from the pad, with the rest (>0·90 of N and P inputs) retained in the solids accumulating in the surface layers of soiled woodchip, ‘spent timber residues’ (STR). The STR was similar in analysis to straw-based farmyard manure (FYM), high in organic N, and land spreading of this material should be managed in a similar way to FYM. It also appears suitable for application to grassland, except when based on coarse woodchips. These results confirm the hypothesis that the effluent draining from the pads should be considered as consistently similar to dirty water rather than slurry, as in the current rules associated with Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs) in England and Wales.

The aim of the study was to investigate the changes in renal function in late pregnant and early lactating Corriedale ewes. Compared with the non-productive state, plasma urea concentration was increased by 67% during pregnancy, whereas it decreased by 36% during lactation. Urine flow, urea clearance, renal plasma flow and glomerular filtration rate were significantly reduced (P<0·05) during both late pregnancy and early lactation. Filtered load of urea and the amount of urea eliminated were significantly reduced (P<0·05) only in lactating ewes. No changes were noted in the fractional excretion of urea, the filtration fraction and the urine osmolality during both late pregnancy and early lactation. It was concluded that, as in other breeds, Corriedale ewes can adapt to increased nitrogen requirements during late pregnancy, and especially during early lactation, by increasing the renal conservation of urea. Unlike other breeds, however, Corriedale ewes restrict the urine urea losses mainly by reducing renal plasma flow and glomerular filtration rate, without any modification of the tubular reabsorption of urea during both late pregnancy and early lactation.

The yield and chemical composition of Sabrina hybrid ryegrass and RvP Italian ryegrass were compared, with special reference to regrowth after defoliation in spring and early summer. Initial cuts were taken on 6, 20 April and 4. and 18 May; subsequently a conservation crop was harvested at either 5 or 7 weeks, and a second regrowth 30 days later. There were four fertilizer treatments. Tiller density, stem development and individual tiller dry weight were recorded in selected treatments.

At the initial cuts and in the conservation crops after the first three initial cuts, varietal differences in yield and dry-matter digestibility (DMD) were relatively small. In all other harvests, RvP was appreciably higher yielding than Sabrina, and it showed greater responses to fertilizer in all second regrowth harvests. The water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC) content of RvP was consistently higher than that of Sabrina in regrowth harvests; the DMD was higher in Sabrina.

In primary growth of the two cultivars, tillering was suppressed at the time of head emergence, but active tillering was resumed earlier in RvP, the later-heading cultivar. In RvP, tillers arising early in the regrowth periods attained head emergence within 5 weeks. In Sabrina there was a marked decline in head production during June, and an increase in the size of individual vegetative tillers.

In regrowth harvests both the yield and the % WSC were markedly reduced when drought conditions were most severe; the most marked varietal differences occurred at this time, both in terms of yield of dry matter and % crude protein responses to fertilizer treatment.

In the two cultivars the DMD of 7-week conservation crops harvested in late May was at least equal to that of 5-week crops harvested later during drought conditions. A distinctly more advanced stage of development was attained in the earlier, heavieryielding crops.

Various species of animals, ranging from ordinary laboratory rats to some high-grade beef and dairy cattle, have been imported from the temperate regions of the world to Nigeria in recent years. Most favoured are Large White pigs and this breed of livestock is proving to have very great potential in the livestock production industry in this part of the tropics. Temperate breeds of livestock when introduced to the tropics are said to decline in their general performance, owing partly to direct effects of high ambient temperatures(Yousef & Johnson, 1965). Some generalized statements have also been made on the adverse effects of tropical climate on growth though very little objective field experimental evidence exists (Williamson & Payne, 1978).

The work aimed to evaluate the effect of lactic acid bacteria, natamycin and hexanoic acid on the fermentation quality, aerobic stability and in vitro digestibility of total mixed ration (TMR) silages containing water bamboo sheath leaves. The treatments were as follows: (1) no additives (control, C), (2) lactic acid bacteria (L), (3) natamycin (N), (4) hexanoic acid (H), (5) lactic acid bacteria + natamycin (LN), (6) lactic acid bacteria + hexanoic acid (LH). Silos were opened and silages were evaluated to assess fermentation quality, aerobic stability and in vitro digestibility. All TMR silages were well-preserved as indicated by dominant lactic acid content, low ammonia nitrogen/total nitrogen, trace propionic acid and negligible butyric acid contents. All additives improved the fermentation quality and in vitro digestibility, evidenced by higher lactic acid/acetic acid ratio, lactic acid, acetic acid, water-soluble carbohydrate contents and lactic acid bacteria count, and lower pH, aerobic bacteria and yeast counts. The LN had the highest lactic acid, acetic acid, lactic acid/acetic acid ratio, in vitro gas production and in vitro digestibility. During aerobic exposure, the LN silage had the highest lactic acid and acetic acid contents, and the lowest pH among all TMR silages. The LN and LH prolonged aerobic stability, reaching 85.5 and 81.5 h, respectively. The LN is recommended to improve the fermentation quality, aerobic stability and in vitro digestibility of TMR prepared with water bamboo sheath leaves.

Chamber sampling is a common method for measuring nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from agricultural soils. However, for grazed pastures, the patchy nature of urine deposition results in very high levels of spatial variability in N2O emissions. In the present study, the behaviour of the sample mean was examined by simulating a large number (9999) of random N2O chamber samples under different assumptions regarding the underlying N2O distribution. Using sample sizes of up to 100 chambers, the Central Limit Theorem did not apply. The distribution of the sample mean was always right-skewed with a standard deviation varying between 12·5 and 135% of the true mean. However, the arithmetic mean was an unbiased estimator and the mean of the sample mean distribution was close to the true mean of the simulated N2O distribution. The properties of the sample mean distribution (variance, skewness) were affected significantly by the assumed distribution of the emission factor, but not by distribution of the urine patch concentration. The geometric mean was also investigated as a potential alternative estimator. However, although its distribution had lower variance, it was also biased. Two methods for bias correcting the mean were investigated. These methods reduced the bias, but at the cost of increasing the variance. Neither of the bias-corrected estimators were consistently better than the arithmetic mean in terms of skewness and variance. To improve the estimation of N2O emissions from a grazed pasture using chambers, techniques need to be developed to identify urine patch and non-urine patch areas before sampling.

Medicinal plants with high phytochemical values are critical for enhancing the productivity of livestock systems, while reducing their environmental impact. This study investigated the influence of graded levels of Cassia fistula leaf powder (CFLP) on in vitro ruminal fermentation parameters, gas production and degradability of diets for ruminants. Five concentrate diets were formulated to contain varying levels of CFLP (0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 mg/g dry matter (DM), denoted CF0, CF15, CF30, CF45 and CF60, respectively). The concentrate diets combined with guinea grass hay at the ratio of 4 : 6 (concentrate : forage) served as a substrate for the study. In vitro gas production test was performed by incubating 200 mg DM of the substrate for 48 h. At the end of the incubation period, the total gas and methane production, nutrient digestibility, in vitro fermentation and post-incubation parameters were evaluated. Results revealed a linear decrease (P < 0.001) in gas and methane production across the treatment groups with an increase in CFLP levels. The amount of methane produced varied from 9.3 ml/200 mg DM in the CF60 diet to 20 ml/200 mg DM in the control diet. Nutrient digestibility was highest in the control diet and lowest in the CF60 diet. There was a linear decrease in ammonia-nitrogen and total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) concentration with an increase in the CFLP level. Inclusion of CFLP up to 30 mg/g DM ruminant diet was found to reduce methane production and ammonia-nitrogen concentration with minimal effects on nutrient degradation and TVFA concentration.

Katuk leaves (Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr.; KL) are widely consumed by breast-feeding Indonesian mothers as it has been reported to increase breast milk production. It is hypothesized that supplementing KL in diets might increase crude protein (CP) concentration and fibre digestibility in the diet. The KL had high CP and non-fibre carbohydrate concentrations (333 and 332 g/kg dry matter; DM, respectively), but low neutral detergent fibre assayed with heat, a stable amylase and expressed exclusive of residual ash (aNDFom; 200 g/kg DM). Fibre digestibility linearly increased with increasing of KL supplementation in low-quality hay (LQH) diets. The KL did not contain a considerable amount of tannins. In LQH diets, gas production after 24 h incubation (GP24) linearly increased with increasing of KL supplementation (P < 0.001). Meanwhile, GP24 linearly decreased with increasing of KL supplementation in medium- and high-quality hays (MQH and HQH; P < 0.001). Metabolizable energy tended to linearly increase in LQH diets, but tended to linearly decrease with increasing of KL supplementation in MQH and HQH diets (P = 0.078). Therefore, this study suggested that KL can be a potential supplement in the ruminant diet due to its abundant dietary proteins but low fibre concentration in its leaves. However, further studies (e.g. in vitro or in vivo) investigating other rumen parameters after incubation should be performed to validate how KL can be supplemented in the diet of ruminant livestock.