Between May 3 and July 26, 1965, the Security Council devoted 30 meetings to consideration of the situation in the Dominican Republic. The Council placed this item on its agenda at the request of Nikolai Fedorenko (Soviet Union) who in a letter of May I had called for an urgent meeting of the Council to consider the question of the armed intervention of the United States in the domestic affairs of the Dominican Republic.

Please substitute the following for the definition on page 276 of our article in the Spring 1996 issue of International Organization (Volume 50, No. 2, pp.269–99):

Definition. A coalition of m (out of n) members is nonconnected if there is a member i ε {N} – {M} that belongs in the Pareto set of {M}.

The fifth session of the WHO Executive Board was held in Geneva from January 16 to February 2, 1950. Long-range plans for WHO operations were outlined, and the Board recommended that the 1951 program should continue at the same general level, with primary emphasis on strengthening national health administrations and on control work against malaria, tuberculosis, and venereal disease. Development of services in the fields of maternal and child health, mental health, nutrition, sanitation, health statistics and medical training facilities would also be stressed.

The Council of the Baghdad Pact, meeting on the ministerial level, convened in London on July 28, 1958. It was reported that during its two-day meeting, Secretary of State Dulles committed the United States to partnership in the pact with the United Kingdom, Turkey, Iran, and Pakistan. The United States' acceptance of obligations expressed in Article 1 of the pact was accompanied by an oral promise to increase military assistance to the three Asian members. According to the press, these two steps were considered “just as good” as signing a treaty. There were two considerations, according to one source, in the procedure adopted by the United States of agreeing to obligations to members of the pact instead of becoming a full member: 1) special military and economic agreements to be made could be made immediately under the joint resolution on the Middle East passed by both Houses of Congress in March 1957; if the United States had joined the pact as a full member, a new treaty would have been involved requiring the Senate's ratification; 2) the United States was not committed to make such special agreements with Iraq, since the latter did not sign the declaration issued by the Council following its meetings on July 28.

Once the object of consensus, every aspect of the traditional account of early modern Europe as an anarchic system of sovereign states is now debated—from the existence of sovereign states to the notion of anarchy, and even the European limits of that system. In the context of these disagreements, I develop a new account of international order in early modern Europe grounded in the perceptions of historical actors. I first argue that this can be achieved by studying the tools that practitioners relied on to describe and organize political authority in the world. I subsequently delve into a common, though seldom-studied, tool developed by a group of practitioners known as masters of ceremonies: courtly ceremonial (or ius praecedentiae). I make three substantive claims. First, the political authorities identified in manuals on courtly ceremonial were primarily crowns and republics, but in the later eighteenth century, all eventually came to be described as “states.” Second, all political authorities stood in a hierarchy determined by a specific set of criteria I identify, but new criteria—power and sovereignty—emerged over the course of the eighteenth century. Third, the scope of international order was not self-evident, and it certainly did not have clear “European” limits in the eyes of masters of ceremonies; non-European political authorities could easily be integrated into their orders of precedence. Ultimately, I suggest that IR scholars should reconsider why they study early modern Europe and how they study international orders.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development announced on September 16, 1959, a loan equivalent to $40 million for the construction of a 150,000-kilowatt atomic power plant in Italy. This represented the Bank's first loan for the development of nuclear power. The project was the outcome of a joint study begun in 1957 with the Italian government on the technical, economic, and financial merits of a large nuclear power plant to be located in southern Italy. The loan was made to the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, an Italian government agency, which was to relend the proceeds to the Società Elettronucleare Nazionale (SENN), a corporation which included nine public utilities companies and five industrial companies as shareholders, and was established to build, own, and operate the plant. The total cost of the project was estimated at the equivalent of $66.4 million, of which the International Bank's loan represented about 60 percent, the remainder to be provided by SENN's stockholders. The Bank's loan, which was guaranteed by the Republic of Italy, was to be for a twenty-year term, bearing 6 percent interest, with amortization beginning on February 15, 1964.

The tenth annual meeting of the Board of Governors of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development was held in Istanbul, Turkey from September 12 to 16, 1955, under the chairmanship of Ahmed Zaki Saad (Governor for Egypt). Two of the five plenary sessions were held jointly with the Board of Governors of the International Monetary Fund, and on September 15 an informal panel discussion was held on the International Finance Corporation (IFC).

The twelfth annual meeting of the Board of Governors of the International Monetary Fund was held jointly with the Board of Governors of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development in Washington D.C., September 23–26, 1957, under the chairmanship of Miguel Cuaderno, Sr. Per Jacobsson, Managing Director, reviewed the activities of the Fund during the previous year. Emphasizing that the Fund's assistance was of a short-term nature and designed to enable countries to adopt and carry out, within a limited period of time, programs to restore stability to their economies, Mr. Jacobsson stated that the Fund was being used to help countries meet emergency needs, ease strain in the balance of payments, meet temporary exchange difficulties, and fulfill stabilization programs. Mr. Jacobsson went on to discuss various problems encountered in connection with the Fund's activities and cited, inter alia, multiple currency practices, Fund liquidity, and, in connection with general aspects of the world economy, inflation, relative values of currencies, and financing for underdeveloped countries.

Ratification by the fifteenth nation, Denmark, of the IRO Constitution on August 20, 1948 brought the Organization into official existence by fulfilling the constitutional requirement stipulating that fifteen nations contributing 75 percent of the operational funds needed by IRO must ratify the Constitution before the Organization could undertake autonomous operations. Following this ratification, the Preparatory Commission of IRO began its seventh and last meeting in Geneva on September 10, 1948, to complete arrangements for the convening of the IRO General Council. The commission 1) decided to convene the first session of the General Council on September 13, 1948; 2) requested the Executive Secretary to submit to the General Council for its consideration an amended text of the staff regulations and the draft financial regulations for IRO; 3) took note of the allocation of funds for the quarter from 1 July to 30 September, 1948; 4) noted with satisfaction the report of the Review Board for Eligibility Appeals; 5) decided not to establish a “date line” for the admission of new cases; and 6) adopted the provisional agenda for the first session of the General Council. On September 11 the chairman declared the final session of the Preparatory Commission for the International Refugee Organization closed, noting that it had fulfilled the duties assigned to it under the Agreement on Interim Measures.

The present critical stage of inter-American relations offers a timely occasion for an inquiring glance at the Organization of American States (OAS). For more than half a century—and particularly during the last two decades—the United States has increasingly adapted its policy toward Latin America to the principles and procedures of the Organization of American States, confident that such an approach would best serve our long-range objectives in the hemisphere. Yet the varying responses which the United States has gained from the regional agency when problems of high importance have been submitted to it constitute one of the most confusing aspects of our hemisphere relations. The last few years have provided a striking illustration of this point.

On September 16, 1959, the International Monetary Fund announced that 40 members, including most recently Bolivia, Ethiopia, Honduras, Libya, Malaya, and Peru, had consented to increases in their Fund's quotas by amounts ranging from 50 to 100 percent. This was in response to a recommendation by the Directors of the Fund arising out of the thirteenth annual meeting of the Governors of the Fund, held in New Delhi in October 1958. The Fund extended to July 31, 1960, the period within which the rest of its 68-nation membership might accept increases in its quotas. Some of these countries had already communicated consents to the Fund which would become effective upon the completion of certain formalities. The Fund's assets, which, as of January 31, 1959, amounted to the equivalent of $9.2 billion, would be enlarged by the recommended increases by the equivalent of $5.8 billion.

Case concerning the Northern Cameroons (Cameroun v. United Kingdom): In an order of July 6, 1961, the International Court of Justice fixed the time limits for the filing of pleadings in the case concerning the Northern Cameroons as follows: for the memorial of the Republic of Cameroun, November 1, 1961; and for the countermemorial of the United Kingdom, March 1, 1962. Subsequently, in an order of November 2, 1961, the Court, in accordance with a request from the agent of the government of the Republic of Cameroun, extended to January 3, 1962, the time limit for the filing of the memorial of the Republic of Cameroun and to May 2, 1962, the time limit for the filing of the countermemorial of the United Kingdom.

The 32nd annual report of the Bank for International Settlements, covering the financial year from April 1, 1961, to March 31, 1962, was submitted to the annual general meeting of the Bank held in Basle on June 4, 1962. In his introduction, the General Manager of the Bank, Mr. Guillaume Guindey, reported that the accounts for the 32nd financial year closed with a surplus of 20,185,172 gold francs, as against 27,324,105 gold francs for the previous year. The reduction in the volume of gold transactions handled accounted for the greater part of the decline in the year's earnings. After deduction of 7,500,000 gold francs was transferred to the provision for contingencies, the net profit amounted to 12,685,172 gold francs, compared with 14,974,105 gold francs for the preceding year. The annual general meeting decided to distribute a dividend of 37.50 gold francs per share. In view of the results for the financial year 1961–1962, the meeting also decided that, as an exception measure, a lump sum of 4.5 million gold francs should be applied in the forthcoming year to the further reduction of the amount of the undeclared cumulative dividend.

The Council of the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration (ICEM) met in Geneva from April 27 to May 4, 1955, after a week-long meeting of the ninemember Executive Committee. The Council approved a $48 million budget, of which $2.5 million was earmarked for administrative expenses. The $46.6 million operational budget would finance the processing, transport and resettlement of the 142, 165 Europeans the Committee hoped to move in 1955. The major countries of immigration were expected to be Australia, United States, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Venezuela; major countries of emigration were expected to be Trieste and Italy, Germany, Austria, Greece, Netherlands.

During the sixth session of the Executive Board in Geneva from June 1 to June 9, 1950, it was reported that some difficulties had been encountered in the establishment of a regional office for Europe. Six member states had not replied to the request sent them on the subject, seven had expressed reservations, six had sent in negative replies, and only eight had indicated their approval. It was also proposed that rules of procedure of the Assembly be changed to permit the participation in discussions of representatives of the Executive Board in either plenary or committee meetings. During the biennial revision of the list of non-governmental organizations with which WHO maintained official relations, a total of eighteen were retained. The Executive Board also agreed that, while WHO was not an organization for sending supplies to governments, it was nonetheless true that supplies were occasionally indispensable to enable a government to carry out a specific program. A total of $100,000 had been thus distributed to Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Finland, India, Hashemite Kingdom of the Jordan, Monaco, Portugal, Thailand and Yugoslavia for the control of malaria and leprosy, the improvement of nursing care and similar activities.

The sixth session of the South Pacific Commission was held at Headquarters, Noumea, New Caledonia from October 23 to November 2, 1950 and was attended by the Commissioners of the six member governments (United States, Australia, New Zealand, France, Netherlands, United Kingdom). The principal agenda items included: 1) the work program for 1951 in health, economic development and social development; 2) resolutions of the first South Pacific Conference held in May 1950; 3) membership in the Research Council for 1951; 4) technical assistance; 5) information program and publications; 6) budget for 1951; and 7) relationship with the United Nations and specialized agencies. It was decided to hold the second South Pacific Conference in April 1953.

A summary of its activities in 1950 was released by the Organization for European Economic Cooperation in January 1951. During the first two years of its establishment, the report stated, OEEC had been essentially an instrument for the distribution of United States aid but then became increasingly an instrument of cooperation for the solution of European economic problems. In two years, European production had been restored, trade had almost entirely recovered and international financial stability was achieved. The establishment of a European Payments Union was considered one of the main achievements of OEEC during 1950.

On March 11, 1947, the United States Department of State announced that there had been deposited the number of instruments of ratification of the Convention on International Civil Aviation necessary, under the terms of the Convention, to bring it into force. Accordingly, on April 4, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) came into being. The First Assembly of ICAO met in Montreal, May 6, 1947, to take up the problems of air transport which had been handled, pending the establishment of the permanent Organization, by the Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization (PICAO), created June 6, 1945, for a period not to exceed three years.

The Assembly of the League of Nations,

Considering that the Charter of the United Nations has created, for purposes of the same nature as those for which the League of Nations was established, an international organisation known as the United Nations to which all States may be admitted as Members on the conditions prescribed by the Charter and to which the great majority of the Members of the League already belong;

Desiring to promote, so far as lies in its power, the continuation, development and success of international co-operation in the new form adopted by the United Nations;

Considering that, since the new organisation has now commenced to exercise its functions, the League of Nations may be dissolved; and

Considering that, under Article 3, paragraph 3, of the Covenant, the Assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the League: