The coconut palm is an important plantation crop in India, where it is cultivated on 1.796 million hectares. The rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros L. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) is a serious pest of coconut throughout India and southeast Asia, causing an estimated 10% yield loss in the crop. Successful biological control of this pest could be achieved using the non-occluded Oryctes virus (syn. Baculovirus oryctes or Oryctes baculovirus). This review provides an account of this microbial agent, its biology, effects and impact, production and maintenance and alternative hosts, particularly in the context of the Indian situation. It also proposes future areas for investigation on the virus, in order to achieve its commercial viability and more widespread use.

Host plant resistance is an important tool in the management of the banana weevil Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar). Although ovipositing females do not discriminate between resistant and susceptible cultivars, plants of resistant cultivars have smaller larval populations and sustain less damage in the field. These observations suggest that lower damage levels observed in resistant cultivars reflect larval success. This study was carried out to evaluate laboratory screening of banana cultivars as a rapid screening method for resistance to the banana weevil by determining the influence of cultivars on weevil survivorship, development duration and adult weight. Larvae were raised on corm pieces of two susceptible, three intermediate and four resistant cultivars, resistance categories having been determined from a previous field screening trial. The developmental period was prolonged in resistant cultivars. However, cultivars had less influence on survivorship and adult weight. Moreover, the ranking of survivorship did not correlate with resistance levels observed in the field. The implications of these findings for laboratory screening of cultivars for resistance to C. sordidus are highlighted.

Neozygites floridana (Weiser & Muma) Remaudière & Keller and Hirsutella thompsonii Fisher are important fungal pathogens of mites on cassava in Benin. Bioassays were conducted to evaluate the influence of four concentrations (50, 100, 200 and 500 ppm) of a water-dispersible formulation (Gaucho 70 WS) of imidacloprid on the conidial germination of these two fungi. Imidacloprid significantly reduced the germination of primary conidia and formation of infective capilliconidia in N. floridana. In contrast, imidacloprid concentrations of 100 ppm and above increased conidial germination in H. thompsonii. Another bioassay was conducted to evaluate possible synergism between imidacloprid and H. thompsonii in the mortality of the cassava green mite, Mononychellus tanajoa (Bondar). Hirsutella thompsonii alone and in combination with imidacloprid both killed around 95% of the mites after five days. In contrast, the mortality of mites treated with imidacloprid alone was close to that of untreated mites, which was around 30% on the fifth day after treatment.

Citrus orchards in the Nile Delta and middle Egypt were surveyed for predacious soil mites and parasitic nematodes. There were 16 species of predacious mites and the citrus parasitic nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans Cobb. was recorded everywhere. In the medium-heavy soil of the Nile Delta orchards, the general predators or decomposer mites like uropodids were most common. In the light-medium soil of El-Fayoum in middle Egypt, the specialized predator mites like gamasids were most common. In localities where gamasids were common, negligible infestations of citrus parasitic nematodes were reported. Regarding Egypt as a whole, the uropodid mites Uroobovella krantzi (Zaher & Afifi) and Nenteria hypotrichus (El-Borolossy & El-Banhawy) represented about 50% of the sampled mites. The remaining mites were represented by 14 mesostigmatid species, the most common being Gamasiphis pulchellus (Berlese). At least 6% of orchards suffered injurious nematode infestations, 13% critical infestations and 22% moderate infestations, and the remaining 59% were free or with negligible infestations.

The tropical warehouse moth Ephestia cautella (Walker) is an important storage pest of maize grain. The control of this major moth pest relies heavily on the use of synthetic insecticides. We assessed the biological efficacy of a commercial neem oil (Calneem oil) against E. cautella in the laboratory, using the common grain protectant Actellic as a positive control. Contact toxicity, repellency, effects on oviposition, development and grain damage were assessed. The assays were conducted by treating 100 g of maize grains with Calneem oil concentrations of 3, 5 and 7 ml/l; and Actellic at 2 ml/l. Calneem oil significantly (P < 0.05) reduced oviposition rate, development of eggs and immature stages, and emergence rate of E. cautella progeny in maize grains. Grains treated with Calneem oil had significantly (P < 0.05) reduced grain damage in storage, and the oil had a repellency of 53–70% compared with the negative control. Calneem oil protected maize grain against damage by E. cautella for 10 weeks, compared with 20 weeks protection by Actellic. There was no resistance development to the oil for three generations of E. cautella. The insects that survived treatment with the LC90 concentration (12.2 ml/l) of the Calneem oil laid fewer eggs, and some of their progeny were deformed. Calneem oil provided a good level of protection to maize grains against infestation by E. cautella, and may therefore be a suitable substitute for Actellic.

Ticks have always been a major obstacle to livestock production due to the devastating diseases which they transmit especially in the tropics. The control of ticks which has relied heavily on the use of acaricides is now faced with serious problems e.g. increased resistance in ticks, high costs and toxicity to the environment. Over the last few decades, alternative tick control methods which utilize natural factors with little or no acaricides have been sought and those which have shown some promise are discussed in this paper. They include release or conservation of biological control agents e.g. parasitoids, predators and pathogens; anti-tick grasses and pasture spelling. The possibility of integrating some of these factors into low cost environmentally-safe tick control strategies affordable by resource limited farmers is also discussed.

Piper guineense Schum and Thonn, mixed with cowpea seeds, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp, was significantly superior (P < 0.05) to the large, red and mild Capsicum annum var connoides (Miller) and the small, red and pungent Capsicum frutescens L. in causing up to 96% mortality to adults of Callosobruchus maculatus F. within 48 hr. When applied as ground pepper, P. guineense was more active insecticidally than when applied as whole fruits.

Adult bruchids in contact with P. guineense showed significant reduction (P < 0.05) in the numbers of eggs laid, and in the numbers of F1, offspring that emerged compared with adult bruchids exposed to the same doses of C. annum or C. frutescens respectively.

Neither of the peppers reduced the viability of the cowpea seeds or the absorption of water needed to soften the seed testa for decortication before cooking or processing.

At a cost price of U.S.A. $0.003 per 1 g of black pepper, and an effective application rate of 1 g black pepper to 20 g cowpea, there is a saving of over $750 by disinfesting a ton of cowpea with black pepper for a storage period of 2–3 months in a metallic drum which costs less than $50.00

Changes in the physiological status of the host rice plant had a profound effect on wing morphism in the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stål). Significant increases in macroptery in the hopper progenies reared on senescent or hopperburned hosts occurred mainly because of a general decline in the host's nutritional status and allelochemic factors. Starvation of young nymphs on nutritionally-depleted hosts probably inhibits the secretion of juvenile hormone by the corpus allatum, suppressing brachyptery and expressing macroptery. Also, any juvenilizing effect of the host's allelochemics would tend to dissipate with the host's senescence. Therefore, the proportion of macroptery in the hopper progeny developing on the rice host plant is determined by the extent of depletion of the host's nutritional allelochemic factors. The observed significant increase in macroptery at a density of 50 or more hoppers per plant may have also been mediated through the host plant. Brown planthopper progenies of macropterous and brachypterous Biotypes 1, 2, 3 and the field population differed in their expression of macroptery probably because of their inherent differences in sensitivity to macropteryinducing stresses.

Greenbug, Schizaphis graminum (Rondani), an important vector of barley yellow dwarf mosaic virus, is a major pest of cereals in many countries. A preliminary survey conducted in the Punjab and North Western Frontier Province of Pakistan revealed medium to heavy infestations at Charsadda (density 12 apterous greenbugs/25 plants), Sher Shah (Multan) (density 33) and Malkot (Murree) (density 114). However, it was found in small numbers at many other locations.

A culture of greenbugs collected from Charsadda, was established on susceptible wheat cultivar Faisalabad-83 at 27 ± 3°C, 60% r.h. and 16:8 hr day:night regime. A seedling bulk test using local and exotic host differentials indicated that DS-28A and Largo wheat were susceptible, whereas Amigo wheat, Post and Will barley were resistant. This indicates that the population of greenbug from Charsadda culture was different from greenbug biotypes occurring in the USA. Therefore, it was designated as biotype PK-I for future reference.

Of the 44 recommended wheat cultivars in Pakistan, Punjab-85 was found to be resistant (visual damage rating (DR) 3 at 0 to 9 damage scale; 0, healthy; 9, dead). Faisalabad-85 had a DR of 4, PARI-73, Sandal and Yecora had a DR of 5, and PAK-81, WL-711, Sutluj-86 and Nuri-70 had a DR of 6. All the remaining cultivars were highly susceptible to greenbug (DR ≻ 6).

Three tests, namely, antixenosis (non-preference), antibiosis and tolerance, were conducted to determine the nature of resistance in selected entries. In the antixenosis test, PARI-73, WL-711 and Yecora were found to be the least preferred. The lowest fecundity (antibiosis) of the greenbug was on Punjab-85. In the tolerance test, the lowest damage was recorded on PARI-73 (DR= 4.1), followed by Sandal (DR= 4.8) and Punjab-85 (DR= 4.8). These three tests indicated that resistance in Punjab-85 is mainly due to antibiosis and a low level of tolerance.

During this study 439 native wheat germplasm lines were also tested. Of these, 16 germplasm lines (PAK 15081, PAK 15115, PAK 15139, PAK 15242, PAK 15433, PAK 15479, PAK 15481, PAK 15519, PAK 15992, PAK 15994, PAK 15995, PAK 15997, PAK 16007, PAK 16008, PAK 16010 and PAK 16190) were found to have a high level of resistance (DR ≺ 3). Of the test entries, 114 were moderately resistant (DR= 4–6) and the remainder were susceptible (DR ≻ 6) to greenbug. The germplasm lines found resistant may have different genes for resistance which can be exploited in breeding programmes.

The goatweed, Ageratum conyzoïdes L., contains the same chromenes, precocenes 1 and 2, as the bedding plant, A. houstonianum. A crude lipid extract from the goatweed exerts ovicidal action and induces sterility after topical treatment of both young last instar larvae (L6) and females of Dysdercus flavidus Sign, at emergence by inhibiting ovarian development. The chromenes survived metabolism for at least 12 days. The action of the two chromenes in the crude extract is synergistic.

Antheraea assamensis (Helfer, 1837) is a sericigenous insect with distinct coloration, namely green, blue, orange and yellow in their larval stages and these are multivoltine in culture. However, wild morphs with diapause are found in dense forests. In this study, the wing venation and its variation in A. assamensis were analysed using traditional as well as landmark-based morphometric methods. The venation patterns are reviewed and significant changes in veins recorded. The samples were analysed using geometric morphometric methods and other conventional statistical methods. Landmark-based data were measured among selected veins and the centroid sizes, procrustes to tangent distance of different veins were analysed. Results show significant differences in some of the veins among the intraspecies of A. assamensis. The results suggest that both visual comparison as well as a quantitative approach in A. assamensis may lead to unsound taxonomic conclusions at intraspecies level.

During surveys conducted in 40 maize-cassava intercrops in the humid forest zone of southwestern Nigeria, the following termite species were identified from soil samples: Microtermes spp., Macrotermes nigeriensis (Sjöstedt), Macrotermes subhyalinus (Rambur), Amitermes evuncifer (Silvestri) and Anoplotermes quietus (Fr. Muller). High incidence of Microtermes and Macrotermes spp. was observed. The population density of predominant species was generally higher in the rainy seasons than in the dry seasons, indicating the role of moisture in their spread. The soil texture of surveyed farms did not influence the presence of the subterranean species Microtermes. The level of weeds in the surveyed farms also did not affect the population density of termites. However, Microtermes population increased significantly (P < 0.05) with increase in crop residues and its presence in farms partly depended on the presence of maize in such farms. Microtermes and Macrotermes species inflicted most of the damage observed on maize crops, while that caused by Amitermes evuncifer was low. No termite attack was observed on growing cassava during the surveys. The presence of live cassava in the intercrop did not influence damage by termites. Nasutitermes and Microcerotermes species which attack economic trees such as cocoa, citrus, oil palm, and forest trees did not attack cassava or maize.

A survey of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) belonging to the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae was conducted in three municipalities on the Pacific coast of the State of Colima, México, to determine their occurrence and recovery frequency and predominant plant species in cultivated and non-cultivated habitats. Nineteen soil samples were collected: seven from non-cultivated habitats and 12 from habitats or areas cultivated mostly with fruit and grain crops and grasses. Of the 19 soil samples, 14 were positive for EPNs; the total prevalence was 73.7%. From the 14 positive soil samples, 12 steinernematid isolates (85.7%) and two heterorhabditid isolates (14.3%) were recovered. Irrespective of the locations, EPNs from the genus Steinernema were recovered from the three municipalities; EPNs from the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis were recovered from Armería and Ixtlahuacán. Only steinernematid isolates were recovered from non-cultivated habitats. Most of the isolates were recovered from cultivated habitats, and our results suggest that there is a higher prevalence of EPNs in cultivated soils.

The leaf miner Coelaenomenodera lameensis Berti & Mariau (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Hispinae) is the most serious pest of oil palm in West Africa. A study of mortality factors was carried out at 19 sites located in seven plantations of 3000–7000 ha, over a 2–4-year period in the early 1980s throughout the forest zone of Côte d'Ivoire, West Africa. All life history stages of C. lameensis were found to be attacked by natural enemies. Fluctuations in numbers of egg parasitoids were related to climatic factors and host population dynamics and parasitism rates varied substantially among sites. High egg mortality in C. lameensis, related to parasitism, was directly linked to climatic factors, mainly relative humidity. Fluctuations in egg mortality not linked to parasitism were similar among plantations. There was also a negative correlation between beetle fecundity and egg mortality; climatic conditions favourable to an increase in fecundity also disfavoured egg mortality. This can be a major cause of population increase of larval C. lameensis. Different species of larval and pupal parasitoids and predators were observed. In addition, viruses, isolated from dead larvae in galleries, killed 55–60% of the larvae, probably playing an important role in limiting populations. The destruction of mines by several species of ants also eliminated about 25% of beetle larvae. Parasitoids played a smaller role (less than 10% of larval mortality is due to parasitoids). Mortality in larvae and pupae can exceed 90%, but varied widely from one plantation to another. Examples of mortality tables are given for clearly characterized situations and they help to explain the stability of populations and the occurrence of outbreaks on a plantation or sites scale. Mortality rates lower than 98.6% can lead to population instability and an outbreak in an area.

Termite damage to annual crops on smallscale farms was surveyed in eight areas in southern Malawi during 1989/90 to 1991/92. The most frequently grown crop was maize, followed by pigeonpeas, Phaseolus beans, cotton, cowpea and groundnuts. Twenty-seven species of termites were found attacking crops. The most numerous and widely distributed were several species of the Macrotermitinae, including Ancistrotermes latinotus, four species of Macrotermes, four species of Microtermes, three species of Odontotermes and Pseudacanthotermes militaris. All species damaged maize but only a few damaged bambara, cassava and banana. The damage appeared to be more frequent in dry areas than in wet ones.

Studies were conducted in two districts of eastern Uganda from 1997 to 1999 to introduce and monitor the establishment of an exotic parasitoid, Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), for the control of the stemborer Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and also to determine the stemborer species complex in maize and sorghum. The study confirmed the presence of four important stemborers, two pyralids Ch. partellus and Eldana saccharina Walker and two noctuids, Busseola fusca Fuller and Sesamia calamistis Hampson. Chilo partellus was dominant, constituting 53–88% of stemborers four d followed by B. fusca at 8–37 %. The most abundant local parasitoid was the larval parasitoid Cotesia sesamiae (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). The pupal parasitoids Pediobius furvus Gahan (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) and Dentichasmias busseolae Heinrich (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) were also recorded. Parasitism of Co. sesamiae on Ch. partellus ranged between 0 and 13.1 %. The introduced Co. flavipes was recovered from all sites in four consecutive seasons (between 1998 and 1999) causing parasitism of between 4 and 32.9 % on Ch. partellus. Cotesia flavipes was also recovered from the indigenous stemborers B. fusca and S. calamistis. This study indicates that Co. flavipes has established in eastern Uganda.

A pair of accessory reproductive glands (ARGs) containing a variety of secretory products forms a part of the male reproductive system of the tsetse, Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood. All of the ARG cells have an extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum which is indicative of the production of proteinaceous substances to be secreted. Histochemically, the secretory products in the lumen of the ARG contain a neutral mucopolysaccharide-protein complex, and are products of several morphological types. The latter are probably stages of maturation of the secretory materials that eventually become the wall of the spermatophore, a highly organized structure which acts as a temporary container for the spermatoza during their transfer to the spermathecae, and is histochemically composed of a mixture of carbohydrates and proteins. On grounds of histochemical and ultrastructural similarities, we suggest that the spermatophore of G. morsitans is derived, at least partially, from the male ARGs.

Tree-hole phytotelmata encompass the internodal water pools that form in many species of bamboo (Gramineae). Using bamboo traps, we sampled macroinvertebrate communities in a habitat within the subtropical cloud forest of Henri Pittier National Park, Rancho Grande, north-central Venezuela, and quantified the temporal differences in their abundance and composition. In total, 1024 invertebrates were collected during the 7 months between February and August 2008. The insect orders Diptera and Coleoptera were abundant, particularly Culex (Anoedioporpa) conservator Dyar & Knab, Culex (Culex) mollis (Dyar & Knab), Wyeomyia (Wyeomyia) arthrostigma (Lutz) and Toxorhynchites (Lynchiella) theobaldi (Dyar & Knab). The traps also contained predators, detritivores and collectors (filtering and gathering). Macroinvertebrate abundance in the traps was higher during the rainy season. This observation was attributed to a greater abundance of Ephydridae, Blattaria and Culicidae during wetter months, and an increased availability of potential new breeding sites in the environment, which resulted in increased adult eclosion, and higher rates of oviposition in the bamboo traps. Temporal differences in pH and dissolved oxygen levels of trap water were observed.

Total and differential haemocyte counts following starvation and feeding resumption, ventral nerve cord transection, and brain implantation followed by methoprene application and 20-hydroxyecdysone injection were studied in Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus) larvae. The results revealed that initial starvation and transection of the ventral nerve cord before the fifth abdominal ganglion in fifth instars of D. chrysippus led to a reduced total haemocyte count, on the one hand, and to a higher variation in percentage of different haemocyte types, on the other. While feeding resumption, brain implantation and 20-hydroxyecdysone treatments reversed the effect of starvation and nerve cord transection, methoprene application produced a decline in total number of haemolymph cells.

There are several stem-borer species recorded on important cereals such as rice, maize and sorghum as well as on grain legumes like cowpea. Those of considerable economic importance are: Chilo partellus, Sesamia infer ens, Sesamia eretica, Busseola fusca and Eldana saccharina on maize and sorghum; Sesamia infer ens. Chilo spp., Maliarpha separatella and Tryporyza incertulas on rice; and Maruca testu-lalis on cowpea.

Chemical control of insect pests will continue to be a major component of integrated pest management. However, control of tissue borers with insecticides is relatively more difficult than control of the insect pests feeding externally on foliage, shoots and stems. The foliar application of dust and spray formulation of most of the available insecticides has generally proved to be unsatisfactory as these cannot penetrate deep inside the tissues in sufficient quantities to kill the borers.

The recent advances in pest control technology, placing greater emphasis on use of various pest management components as well as insecticide selectively based on improved application methods has now made the control of stem-borers more effective and economical. Advantage can now be taken of the knowledge of the specific habits of the pests, period of peak activity of the most vulnerable stage and the economic thresholds for determining the appropriate time of application to control these pests. The development of new systemic insecticides and their granular formulation has further contributed towards the effective control of these borers. The recent research findings and recommendations for the control of cereal stem-borers are reviewed and discussed.