Antheraea assamensis (Helfer, 1837) is a sericigenous insect with distinct coloration, namely green, blue, orange and yellow in their larval stages and these are multivoltine in culture. However, wild morphs with diapause are found in dense forests. In this study, the wing venation and its variation in A. assamensis were analysed using traditional as well as landmark-based morphometric methods. The venation patterns are reviewed and significant changes in veins recorded. The samples were analysed using geometric morphometric methods and other conventional statistical methods. Landmark-based data were measured among selected veins and the centroid sizes, procrustes to tangent distance of different veins were analysed. Results show significant differences in some of the veins among the intraspecies of A. assamensis. The results suggest that both visual comparison as well as a quantitative approach in A. assamensis may lead to unsound taxonomic conclusions at intraspecies level.

Total and differential haemocyte counts following starvation and feeding resumption, ventral nerve cord transection, and brain implantation followed by methoprene application and 20-hydroxyecdysone injection were studied in Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus) larvae. The results revealed that initial starvation and transection of the ventral nerve cord before the fifth abdominal ganglion in fifth instars of D. chrysippus led to a reduced total haemocyte count, on the one hand, and to a higher variation in percentage of different haemocyte types, on the other. While feeding resumption, brain implantation and 20-hydroxyecdysone treatments reversed the effect of starvation and nerve cord transection, methoprene application produced a decline in total number of haemolymph cells.

A survey of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) belonging to the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae was conducted in three municipalities on the Pacific coast of the State of Colima, México, to determine their occurrence and recovery frequency and predominant plant species in cultivated and non-cultivated habitats. Nineteen soil samples were collected: seven from non-cultivated habitats and 12 from habitats or areas cultivated mostly with fruit and grain crops and grasses. Of the 19 soil samples, 14 were positive for EPNs; the total prevalence was 73.7%. From the 14 positive soil samples, 12 steinernematid isolates (85.7%) and two heterorhabditid isolates (14.3%) were recovered. Irrespective of the locations, EPNs from the genus Steinernema were recovered from the three municipalities; EPNs from the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis were recovered from Armería and Ixtlahuacán. Only steinernematid isolates were recovered from non-cultivated habitats. Most of the isolates were recovered from cultivated habitats, and our results suggest that there is a higher prevalence of EPNs in cultivated soils.

Tree-hole phytotelmata encompass the internodal water pools that form in many species of bamboo (Gramineae). Using bamboo traps, we sampled macroinvertebrate communities in a habitat within the subtropical cloud forest of Henri Pittier National Park, Rancho Grande, north-central Venezuela, and quantified the temporal differences in their abundance and composition. In total, 1024 invertebrates were collected during the 7 months between February and August 2008. The insect orders Diptera and Coleoptera were abundant, particularly Culex (Anoedioporpa) conservator Dyar & Knab, Culex (Culex) mollis (Dyar & Knab), Wyeomyia (Wyeomyia) arthrostigma (Lutz) and Toxorhynchites (Lynchiella) theobaldi (Dyar & Knab). The traps also contained predators, detritivores and collectors (filtering and gathering). Macroinvertebrate abundance in the traps was higher during the rainy season. This observation was attributed to a greater abundance of Ephydridae, Blattaria and Culicidae during wetter months, and an increased availability of potential new breeding sites in the environment, which resulted in increased adult eclosion, and higher rates of oviposition in the bamboo traps. Temporal differences in pH and dissolved oxygen levels of trap water were observed.

Piper guineense Schum and Thonn, mixed with cowpea seeds, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp, was significantly superior (P < 0.05) to the large, red and mild Capsicum annum var connoides (Miller) and the small, red and pungent Capsicum frutescens L. in causing up to 96% mortality to adults of Callosobruchus maculatus F. within 48 hr. When applied as ground pepper, P. guineense was more active insecticidally than when applied as whole fruits.

Adult bruchids in contact with P. guineense showed significant reduction (P < 0.05) in the numbers of eggs laid, and in the numbers of F1, offspring that emerged compared with adult bruchids exposed to the same doses of C. annum or C. frutescens respectively.

Neither of the peppers reduced the viability of the cowpea seeds or the absorption of water needed to soften the seed testa for decortication before cooking or processing.

At a cost price of U.S.A. $0.003 per 1 g of black pepper, and an effective application rate of 1 g black pepper to 20 g cowpea, there is a saving of over $750 by disinfesting a ton of cowpea with black pepper for a storage period of 2–3 months in a metallic drum which costs less than $50.00

Ticks have always been a major obstacle to livestock production due to the devastating diseases which they transmit especially in the tropics. The control of ticks which has relied heavily on the use of acaricides is now faced with serious problems e.g. increased resistance in ticks, high costs and toxicity to the environment. Over the last few decades, alternative tick control methods which utilize natural factors with little or no acaricides have been sought and those which have shown some promise are discussed in this paper. They include release or conservation of biological control agents e.g. parasitoids, predators and pathogens; anti-tick grasses and pasture spelling. The possibility of integrating some of these factors into low cost environmentally-safe tick control strategies affordable by resource limited farmers is also discussed.

Greenbug, Schizaphis graminum (Rondani), an important vector of barley yellow dwarf mosaic virus, is a major pest of cereals in many countries. A preliminary survey conducted in the Punjab and North Western Frontier Province of Pakistan revealed medium to heavy infestations at Charsadda (density 12 apterous greenbugs/25 plants), Sher Shah (Multan) (density 33) and Malkot (Murree) (density 114). However, it was found in small numbers at many other locations.

A culture of greenbugs collected from Charsadda, was established on susceptible wheat cultivar Faisalabad-83 at 27 ± 3°C, 60% r.h. and 16:8 hr day:night regime. A seedling bulk test using local and exotic host differentials indicated that DS-28A and Largo wheat were susceptible, whereas Amigo wheat, Post and Will barley were resistant. This indicates that the population of greenbug from Charsadda culture was different from greenbug biotypes occurring in the USA. Therefore, it was designated as biotype PK-I for future reference.

Of the 44 recommended wheat cultivars in Pakistan, Punjab-85 was found to be resistant (visual damage rating (DR) 3 at 0 to 9 damage scale; 0, healthy; 9, dead). Faisalabad-85 had a DR of 4, PARI-73, Sandal and Yecora had a DR of 5, and PAK-81, WL-711, Sutluj-86 and Nuri-70 had a DR of 6. All the remaining cultivars were highly susceptible to greenbug (DR ≻ 6).

Three tests, namely, antixenosis (non-preference), antibiosis and tolerance, were conducted to determine the nature of resistance in selected entries. In the antixenosis test, PARI-73, WL-711 and Yecora were found to be the least preferred. The lowest fecundity (antibiosis) of the greenbug was on Punjab-85. In the tolerance test, the lowest damage was recorded on PARI-73 (DR= 4.1), followed by Sandal (DR= 4.8) and Punjab-85 (DR= 4.8). These three tests indicated that resistance in Punjab-85 is mainly due to antibiosis and a low level of tolerance.

During this study 439 native wheat germplasm lines were also tested. Of these, 16 germplasm lines (PAK 15081, PAK 15115, PAK 15139, PAK 15242, PAK 15433, PAK 15479, PAK 15481, PAK 15519, PAK 15992, PAK 15994, PAK 15995, PAK 15997, PAK 16007, PAK 16008, PAK 16010 and PAK 16190) were found to have a high level of resistance (DR ≺ 3). Of the test entries, 114 were moderately resistant (DR= 4–6) and the remainder were susceptible (DR ≻ 6) to greenbug. The germplasm lines found resistant may have different genes for resistance which can be exploited in breeding programmes.

Use of plant derivatives for insect pest control was common in the tropics before the advent of synthetic pesticides. Plants such as neem, Azadirachta indica A. Juss, chinaberry, Melia azedarach L., and Warburgia spp., have been known for insect repellent and antifeedant properties in addition to other plants possessing insecticidal and growth regulating properties. Practical usefulness of antifeedants derived from plants for management of insect pests in selected field crops and stored grains is discussed. These products would, however, require some definitions of quality control and standardization of biological properties for large-scale use.

A pair of accessory reproductive glands (ARGs) containing a variety of secretory products forms a part of the male reproductive system of the tsetse, Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood. All of the ARG cells have an extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum which is indicative of the production of proteinaceous substances to be secreted. Histochemically, the secretory products in the lumen of the ARG contain a neutral mucopolysaccharide-protein complex, and are products of several morphological types. The latter are probably stages of maturation of the secretory materials that eventually become the wall of the spermatophore, a highly organized structure which acts as a temporary container for the spermatoza during their transfer to the spermathecae, and is histochemically composed of a mixture of carbohydrates and proteins. On grounds of histochemical and ultrastructural similarities, we suggest that the spermatophore of G. morsitans is derived, at least partially, from the male ARGs.

During surveys conducted in 40 maize-cassava intercrops in the humid forest zone of southwestern Nigeria, the following termite species were identified from soil samples: Microtermes spp., Macrotermes nigeriensis (Sjöstedt), Macrotermes subhyalinus (Rambur), Amitermes evuncifer (Silvestri) and Anoplotermes quietus (Fr. Muller). High incidence of Microtermes and Macrotermes spp. was observed. The population density of predominant species was generally higher in the rainy seasons than in the dry seasons, indicating the role of moisture in their spread. The soil texture of surveyed farms did not influence the presence of the subterranean species Microtermes. The level of weeds in the surveyed farms also did not affect the population density of termites. However, Microtermes population increased significantly (P < 0.05) with increase in crop residues and its presence in farms partly depended on the presence of maize in such farms. Microtermes and Macrotermes species inflicted most of the damage observed on maize crops, while that caused by Amitermes evuncifer was low. No termite attack was observed on growing cassava during the surveys. The presence of live cassava in the intercrop did not influence damage by termites. Nasutitermes and Microcerotermes species which attack economic trees such as cocoa, citrus, oil palm, and forest trees did not attack cassava or maize.

The goatweed, Ageratum conyzoïdes L., contains the same chromenes, precocenes 1 and 2, as the bedding plant, A. houstonianum. A crude lipid extract from the goatweed exerts ovicidal action and induces sterility after topical treatment of both young last instar larvae (L6) and females of Dysdercus flavidus Sign, at emergence by inhibiting ovarian development. The chromenes survived metabolism for at least 12 days. The action of the two chromenes in the crude extract is synergistic.

Studies were conducted in two districts of eastern Uganda from 1997 to 1999 to introduce and monitor the establishment of an exotic parasitoid, Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), for the control of the stemborer Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and also to determine the stemborer species complex in maize and sorghum. The study confirmed the presence of four important stemborers, two pyralids Ch. partellus and Eldana saccharina Walker and two noctuids, Busseola fusca Fuller and Sesamia calamistis Hampson. Chilo partellus was dominant, constituting 53–88% of stemborers four d followed by B. fusca at 8–37 %. The most abundant local parasitoid was the larval parasitoid Cotesia sesamiae (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). The pupal parasitoids Pediobius furvus Gahan (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) and Dentichasmias busseolae Heinrich (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) were also recorded. Parasitism of Co. sesamiae on Ch. partellus ranged between 0 and 13.1 %. The introduced Co. flavipes was recovered from all sites in four consecutive seasons (between 1998 and 1999) causing parasitism of between 4 and 32.9 % on Ch. partellus. Cotesia flavipes was also recovered from the indigenous stemborers B. fusca and S. calamistis. This study indicates that Co. flavipes has established in eastern Uganda.

The seasonality and behaviour of tabanids were studied in the Planalto Serrano of Santa Catarina State, Brazil. From March 2007 to February 2009, a total of 915 tabanid flies from 15 species and six genera were collected on an individual horse. The number of tabanid species varied from zero during autumn/winter to ten in summer (December–February). Dichelacera alcicornis Wied. (62.1%) was the most abundant species followed by Chrysops fusciapex Lutz (6.7%) and C. patricia Pechuman (5.9%). Peak catches occurred during the summer (December–March). The landing behaviour varied by genera: Chrysops (100%) preferred the head, Dichelacera (56.3%) the flanks, and Poecilodera (100%), Acanthocera (100%), Tabanus (58.8%) and Fidena (48.7%) the limbs region. This is the first work on tabanids in the Santa Catarina State, Brazil.

The extent of genetic differentiation between native and groundnut-feeding forms of the groundnut seed beetle Caryedon serratus Olivier was studied. Sixteen samples (560 individuals of both sexes collected in four localities in Senegal) of C. serratus were reared from pods of four distinct host plants (Arachis hypogaea L., Bauhinia rufescens Lam., Piliostigma reticulatum (DC) Hochst and Tamarindus indica L.), and five microsatellite loci were analysed. Phylogenetic and statistical analyses indicated that host plants strongly influence the degree of genetic differentiation between sampled individuals. Within host plants, genetic differentiation was low. Genetic differentiation between hosts was highly significant (average θ = 0.374) and geographical distances between localities did not influence the genetic structuration of C. serratus populations from a given host plant. The results of this study show that C. serratus could be under a host race formation process.

Bactrocera latifrons (Hendel) is a tephritid fruit fly of primarily Asian distribution that became established in Hawaii in 1983 and recently invaded Africa, being detected in Tanzania in 2006 and in Kenya in 2007. Although males of the majority of dacine fruit flies respond to either methyl eugenol or cuelure, B. latifrons shows little to no response to these lures. Instead, B. latifrons males respond to α-ionol+cade oil. Male age-related responsiveness to α-ionol+cade oil (using wind tunnel bioassays) relative to the age of sexual maturity (assessed through spermathecal dissections) was documented using wild B. latifrons adults. Relative to the peak response observed at day 28, males exceeded 50, 75 and 90% of the peak response at days 7, 14 and 21, respectively. No females younger than 16 days old were mated. Based on a sigmoidal regression of the percentage of inseminated females versus age, 50% of females were inseminated when 18.8 days old, with the percentage increasing to 75 and 90% at 19.8 and 20.9 days of age, respectively. At 24 days and older, 100% of females were mated. The observation that no female B. latifrons were mated by day 14, while 14-day-old male flies achieved over 75% of the peak response to α-ionol+cade oil, suggests that α-ionol+cade oil mass trapping has some potential to remove males from the field before they can contribute to increasing field populations through matings, as previously found with the oriental fruit fly, B. dorsalis (Hendel), and its respective male lure, methyl eugenol. The effectiveness of the removal of males before they mate, though, would be expected to be less for B. latifrons than the male annihilation achieved in the use of methyl eugenol with B. dorsalis because the male lure for B. latifrons is weaker overall.

Field observations were carried out on a natural outbreak of a nuclear polyhedrosis virus of the armyworm Spodoptera exempta. Records were kept in four study sites with varying larval density, vegetation cover, and climatic conditions. Biotic factors influencing disease outbreaks were also noted. Initial mortality was recorded 11 days after larval outbreak, and the highest mortality occurred 10 days later. The epizootic was highest in sites of high larval density, wide fluctuations of daily temperatures (range 16.2°C), and high relative humidity. Rainfall was recorded in all disease outbreak sites. An acridid Acrotylus patruelis fed on larval cadavers in the field. Polyhedral inclusion bodies recovered from the gut of A. patruelis caused disease when fed to third instar S. exempta larvae in the laboratory. Predation on larvae by the pied crow Corvus albus in some observation sites reduced larval numbers, and may have prevented NPV from rising to epizootic levels in such areas. In sites of high polyhedrosis incidence, the disease led to larval population collapse in 3 weeks following disease outbreak.

Soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merril, and cowpea, Vigna unguiculta (L.) Walp., were grown in field plots in 1988 and 1989 to compare infestation and damage by pod-sucking bugs (PSBs). Population of PSB was monitored by counting adults and nymphs on rows two and six of each plot from 5 to 14 weeks after planting. Cowpea was infested mainly by Clavigralla tomentosicollis (Stal.), C. shadabi (Germ.), Mirperus jaculus (Thnb.) and Aspavia armigera F., while soybean was infested by M. jaculus, Anoplocnemis curvipes (F.) and Riptortus dentipes F. Soybean had exceedingly low PSB density, ≺ 1 bug/2 m-row, in 1988 and 1989. Four sprays of 400 g a.i./ha. dimethoate had no significant effect on pod and seed damage, yield and germination, compared to the unsprayed control. In contrast, cowpea attracted high populations of PSBs, 30 and 1 bug/2 m-row, in 1988 and 1989, respectively. Dimethoate sprayed against PSBs on cowpea resulted in two- to four-fold reductions (P < 0.05) in pod and seed damage and yield increases of 1500 kg/ha. (P < 0.05) in 1988 and 300 kg/ha. (P < 0.05) in 1989.

Seasonal fluctuations of the Simulium damnosum Theobald complex and the prevalence of Onchocerca volvulus Bickel in blackflies caught in river systems bordering the Nigeria–Benin border were assessed for their direct impact on the epidemiology of onchocerciasis in South-western Nigeria. Entomological evaluation and heteroduplex assay (HDA) techniques were performed on flies caught in the eight capture points in the Ogun and Yewa river systems between October and December 2007, July and December 2008 and May and December 2009. A total of 5789 blackflies were caught on human bait, of which 727 (12.6%) flies were captured in 2007, 1723 (29.8%) in 2008 and 3339 (57.6%) in 2009. The majority of flies caught during the study were forest flies representing 90.3% of the total catch while savanna flies constituted 9.7%. Proportions of parous to nulliparous flies were low in all the catching points (31.1 and 68.9%, respectively). Of the 5789 flies dissected, 11 (0.2%) flies were infected with Onchocerca parasites with nine of the infected flies having L3 head parasites. The HDA results revealed that the Beffa form of S. soubrense was the dominant cytospecies present (87.1%) in all the capture sites when compared with 12.9% of S. damnosum s.s. The low level of infectivity of flies may therefore indicate a low transmission level of onchocerciasis in the communities along the Ogun and Yewa river systems. However, there is a need for constant surveillance on species composition and fly infectivity in the river systems along the borders of Nigeria–Benin Republic.

The short-range diurnal dispersal pattern of adult western flower thrips Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), in relation to spatial distribution of French beans, was determined in the field. A total of 1200 adult female F. occidentalis were released on 60 French bean plants with 20 adult thrips per plant at the central release point of 3.14 m2. Dispersal was determined in terms of the number of thrips recorded on French beans planted on concentric circles at 0.9, 1.8, 3.6, 7.2 and 14.4 m radii from a circular central release point for five days. Results indicated that there was a steady increase in the proportion of dispersing adult F. occidentalis from the first to the fourth day in the first planting season, and from the first to the third day in the second planting season. The peak hour for dispersal was 10.15 h in the first season while it was 13.15 h in the second season. Temperature and wind speed were positively associated with the dispersal activity of adult F. occidentalis. Minimal flight activity was at temperatures below 15 °C and peak flight activity was at 19 °C. The prevailing wind direction did not influence the dispersal pattern of adult F. occidentalis in both seasons. Adult F. occidentalis moved up to 7.2 m on French beans on the first day. In both seasons, the mean direction of thrips dispersal was mostly uniformly distributed (not oriented to a particular compass direction) around the central release point. The results provide an insight into developing integrated management strategies against the pest based on isolation of farm fields, management of alterative hosts around French bean fields and insecticide application.

Sustainable pest management requires the use of ecosystem-friendly control options (e.g. entomopathogens) coupled with target-specific application methods. Here we investigate the susceptibility of the sorghum chafer (Pachnoda interrupta, Olivier) to Metarhizium sp., isolated from dead P. interrupta under field conditions over several years. Target-specific trapping was achieved using Japanese beetle traps or locally made autoinoculation devices, with methyl salicylate or banana as an attractant. Of the attracted and infected beetles, 49% mortality was achieved during October 2005 and 71% during July 2006, while the corresponding mortality in control treatments was 13 and 5%, respectively. We further confirmed that the mortality of the beetles was due to the fungal treatment as 50 and 80% of the dead beetles showed mycosis, respectively. The performance of the pathogen was also investigated in an autodissemination device in 2008 and 2009, where the beetles that were attracted passed through an inoculation chamber. Of the attracted and infected beetles in the autodissemination device, 58.5% (October) and 90.9% (July) were dead within 15 days after treatment. Control mortality was only 3 and 2%, respectively. The potential for horizontal transmission was investigated, where 47% (October) and 59% (July) of the beetles exposed to the pathogen through horizontal transmission were killed. The pathogen was found to be viable for more than 3 days in the field. Our results show that Metarhizium sp. has potential as a biological control agent, and for achieving autodissemination using the target pest as the vector.