Specimens for the detection of avian influenza virus (AIV) were collected from 1937 waterfowl on the Wexford Sloblands, a major wetland reserve in southeast Ireland, between January 2003 and September 2007. During the same period, 1404 waterfowl were sampled at other locations in Ireland. Specimens were tested either by virus isolation or real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rtRT–PCR). A total of 32 isolates of AIV, comprising nine subtypes, was obtained from specimens from the Sloblands compared with just one isolate from elsewhere in Ireland. Samples from nine other waterfowl, five of which were from the Sloblands, tested positive for AIV by rtRT–PCR. Ecological factors are likely to have contributed to the higher detection rate of AIV at the Sloblands compared with the rest of Ireland. It was concluded that targeted surveillance at such sites is a cost-effective means of monitoring the circulation of new AIVs in waterfowl, whereas widespread opportunistic sampling is unproductive and wasteful of resources.

The objectives of this study were to identify human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes in a group of Bosnian-Herzegovinian women with abnormal cytology and to assess their potential coverage by vaccines. HPVs were identified by multiplex real-time PCR test (HPV High Risk Typing Real-TM; Sacace Biotechnologies, Italy) of 105 women with an abnormal cervical Pap smear and positive high-risk (HR) HPV DNA screening test. The most common genotypes in the study were HPV-16 (32·6%, 48/147), HPV-31 (14·3%, 21/147), HPV-51 (9·5%, 14/147) and HPV-18 (7·5%, 11/147). The overall frequency of HR HPV-16 and/or HPV-18, covered by currently available vaccines [Gardasil® (Merck & Co., USA) and Cervarix®; (GlaxoSmithKline, UK)] was lower than the overall frequency of other HPVs detected in the study (40·1%, 59/174, P = 0·017). Group prevalence of HR HPVs targeted by a nine-valent vaccine in development (code-named V503) was higher than total frequency of other HPVs detected (68·0%, 100/147, P < 0·001). Development of cervical cytological abnormalities was independent of the presence of multiple infections (χ2 = 0·598, P = 0·741). Compared to other HPVs, dependence of cervical diagnosis and HPV-16, -18 (P = 0·008) and HPV-16, -18, -31 (P = 0·008) infections were observed. Vaccines targeting HR HPV-16, -18 and -31 might be an important tool in the prevention of cervical disease in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

A four-component solid-phase capture enzyme immunoassay was set up to test for serum IgM antibody to respiratory syncytial (RS) virus and was compared with immunofluorescence assay (IFA).

A total of 128 young children with acute respiratory infections were studied. Thirty-six were shown to be RS virus-positive by the detection of RS virus in nasopharyngeal secretions and 92 were RS virus-negative. A serum specimen was collected after admission to the hospital (days 0–4) and a further specimen was obtained during days 10–14. Out of 36 RS virus-positive patients, 28 (77·7%) were found to be positive for IgM by both capture-ELISA and IFA. Out of 92 RS virus-negative patients 5 (5·4%) were IgM-positive. Four false-positive results were obtained by IFA due to the presence of rheumatoid factor.

The capture-ELISA was shown to be a reliable technique in detecting specific IgM antibody to RS virus.

The risk of classical scrapie in sheep is associated with polymorphisms in the prion protein (PrP) gene. In recent years, large-scale selective breeding programmes for sheep at lower risk of disease have been undertaken across the European Union. We analysed large-scale datasets on scrapie and sheep demography to investigate additional effects of sheep breed on scrapie risk. There was evidence for variation between certain breeds in the scrapie risk of some PrP genotypes, which could be caused by innate breed differences or distinct scrapie strains circulating within them. While the PrP genotypes of cases are generally consistent across breeds, some exceptions provide evidence that scrapie strain may influence affected PrP genotypes to a greater extent than innate breed differences. There was a significant association between the breed-level incidence of scrapie and the frequency of susceptible PrP genotypes in breeds. Our results lend support to selective breeding programmes which aim to reduce the frequency of high-risk PrP genotypes with measures not varying by sheep breed.

An antigenic scheme for Citrobacter koseri was described previously and consisted of 14 ‘O’ antigens. Three additional antigens are now added to the scheme and type strains for these antigens are designated. Their origins and their biochemical and serological reactions are described.

A significant proportion of a consignment of branded Parma Ham was found to have ‘blown’ tins; the associated bacterial flora was therefore investigated. No Salmonella or Shigella were found. Clostridium welchii type A and Clostridium bifermentans were isolated in moderate numbers only from enrichment cultures of the ham. Staphylococcus spp. and coryneform bacteria were obtained from all tins and Group D streptococci were present in a few. No food-poisoning cases were associated with this ham.

1. It has been confirmed that Trichomonas foetus fails to survive freezing and thawing in the presence of 10 % glycerol in egg-yolk-citrate diluent. Under the same conditions adequate sperm survival was demonstrated.

2. Trichomonads were particularly sensitive to the toxic effects of glycerol when suspended in egg-yolk citrate.

3. Trichomonads will survive freezing and thawing when suspended in other diluents such as egg-yolk phosphate or milk.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of influenza virus co-infections in humans and changes in the genetic variability of A(H3N2) virus strains in southern Italy from 1999 to 2009. A partial sequence of the haemagglutinin (HA) gene by human influenza H3N2 strains identified in oropharyngeal swabs from patients with influenza-like illness was analysed by DNA sequencing and a phylogenetic analysis was performed. During the seasons 1999–2000, 2002–2003, 2004–2005 and 2008–2009, the influenza viruses circulating belonged to subtype H3N2. However, A(H1N1) subtype virus and B type were respectively prevalent during the 2000–2001, 2006–2007, 2007–2008 and 2001–2002, 2003–2004, 2005–2006 seasons. The HA sequences appeared to be closely related to the sequence of the influenza A vaccine strain. Only the 2002–2003 season was characterized by co-circulation of two viral lineages: A/New York/55/01(H3N2)-like virus of the previous season and A/Fujian/411/02(H3N2)-like virus, a new H3 variant. In this study, over the decade analysed, no significant change was seen in the sequences of the HA gene of H3 viruses isolated.

Henle (1889) found that “Creolin”, an emulsion of tar acids, was a more efficient disinfectant than could be explained from observations upon each of its constituents separately, and concluded that the extra efficiency was connected with the emulsified form. Henle's conclusions do not appear to us to be necessarily justified by his observations.

The purpose of this study was to analyse the clinical characteristics of patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2) PCR re-positivity after recovering from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Patients (n = 1391) from Guangzhou, China, who had recovered from COVID-19 were recruited between 7 September 2021 and 11 March 2022. Data on epidemiology, symptoms, laboratory test results and treatment were analysed. In this study, 42.7% of recovered patients had re-positive result. Most re-positive patients were asymptomatic, did not have severe comorbidities, and were not contagious. The re-positivity rate was 39%, 46%, 11% and 25% in patients who had received inactivated, mRNA, adenovirus vector and recombinant subunit vaccines, respectively. Seven independent risk factors for testing re-positive were identified, and a predictive model was constructed using these variables. The predictors of re-positivity were COVID-19 vaccination status, previous SARs-CoV-12 infection prior to the most recent episode, renal function, SARS-CoV-2 IgG and IgM antibody levels and white blood cell count. The predictive model could benefit the control of the spread of COVID-19.

This study investigated Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine acceptance, and compared the potential factors influencing vaccine acceptance and hesitancy between public university (PuU) and private university (PrU) students in Bangladesh. An anonymous, self-administered questionnaire was sent to 640 PuU and 660 PrU students in Google Form between 25th September and 22nd November 2021, which resulted in the participation of 1034 (461 PuU vs. 573 PrU) respondents (response rate: 72.03% vs. 86.81%). The pooled vaccine acceptance rates among PuU and PrU students were almost similar (88.1%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 85.1–91.1 vs. 87.6%, 95% CI 84.6–90.6). Employing binary logistic regression to assess the association between various potential factors and vaccine acceptance, the study revealed that out of 10 predictors, ‘safety’ and ‘efficacy’ had highly significant positive associations with vaccine acceptance in both cohorts (P = 0.000, P = 0.005). ‘Political roles’ was found to have varied effects– a significant (P = 0.02) negative and a significant positive (P = 0.002) association with vaccine acceptance in PuU and PrU students, respectively. Additionally, ‘communication’ (P = 0.003) and ‘trust’ (P = 0.01) were found to have significant positive associations in PrU students while ‘rumours’ (P = 0.03) had negative association in PuU students. The odds of accepting the COVID-19 vaccine were 1.5 vs. 0.9 in PuU and PrU students. Although chi-square analysis did not show any significant association between gender and vaccine acceptance, discrepancies were found in the factors that potentially affect vaccine uptake decision between PuU and PrU students. COVID-19 vaccine uptake may be improved if vaccine-related information becomes available and is communicated to large numbers of people effectively. The implementation of multidisciplinary interventional educational programmes may also be considered as a preferred approach to improve student's engagement in pandemic awareness and vaccine readiness.

In September 2003 a WHO consultation group on vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPV) concluded that in order to prevent future generations of paralytic polio after interruption of transmission of wild poliovirus, the use of trivalent oral polio vaccine (OPV) must be stopped [1]. Another important global policy decision along the road to polio eradication thus became possible – cessation of OPV use at some time after eradication. The question now is not whether OPV must be stopped, but rather when.

The sequence variation in a 934 base-pair region of the gene encoding the haemagglutinin-neuraminidase of five human parainfluenza virus type 3 (HPIV3) isolates was determined together with that of a prototype UK strain. All of the clinical isolates were from the Manchester area of the UK and were obtained in 1990. 1991 and 1993. The gene segment was amplified by the polymerase chain reaction using HPIVB-specific oligonucleotide primers. The nucleotide homology of the strains was high, around 99% and specific differences in the UK sequences when compared with that of the US prototype strain were identified. In addition, a number of isolate-specific differences were seen. No correlation was detected between the observed nucleotide mutations and the year of isolation, which supports the hypothesis that HPIV3 shows cocirculation of a heterogeneous population of viruses rather than varying with time in a linear fashion. However, the data suggested that geographically-defined genetic lineages of HPIV3 may exist.

The development of immunity in mice to Bordetella pertussis induced by intracerebral, intravenous or intraperitoneal vaccination was analysed in terms of the viable bacteria in the brain after intracerebral challenge, the serum antibodies, and protection against the sublethal infection of the lung that follows intranasal inoculation.

A vaccine introduced intracerebrally was five to ten times more effective than that given intraperitoneally or intravenously, as measured for each route by the amount of vaccine required to protect half the mice against an intracerebral challenge 14 days later (ImD50). Intracorebral vaccination induced higher antibody titres than vaccination by the other two routes. The survival of infected mice given 1–3 ImD50 doses of vaccine intracerebrally 14 days before, followed a pattern similar to that after intraperitoneal or intravenous vaccination with up to 10 ImD50 of vaccine: the numbers of organisms increased for 3 days and then declined. Injection of about four ImD50 of vaccine intracerebrally produced a local immunity, resulting in an immediate kill of challenge organisms given 14 days later. Such an effect following intraperitoneal vaccination was achieved only against challenges with an avirulent strain. It is suggested that better stimulation of circulating antibody and local immunity in the brain together account for the better protection induced by intracerebral vaccine.

Immunity to an intracerebral infection appears therefore to have at least three components, each specific for pertussis. The first, like that induced by intraperitoneal and intravenous vaccination, reaches a maximum in 2 or 3 weeks and is probably an expression of a general response by the animal operating not earlier than 3 days after infection. The second is a local immunity, appearing after the same interval. The third is a short-lived local immunity which has been described by previous workers; it immediately follows the injection intracorebrally of ten times less vaccine than that needed to protect against a challenge 14 days later and lasts only 2–3 days. The second and third types result in immediate sterilization of the infection.

Mice recovering from sublethal brain infection with avirulent organisms were immune to a second infection with a virulent organism, but this was achieved not by the ability to kill the re-infecting organisms immediately on injection into the brain, but only after the 3–4 days lag such as follows intraperitoneal vaccination.

With the aim of minimizing adverse health outcomes and reducing the risk of outbreaks, we offered one dose of MMR vaccine to children known to be incompletely immunized at the time of teenage booster vaccination in secondary schools in Swindon in 2011. The Child Health Department database was queried to identify Year 10 children who had had zero or one dose of MMR vaccine previously. Of the 316 children offered vaccination, 60 received a first dose and 87 received a second dose of MMR vaccine. Fourteen children had two documented doses in the past and two had contraindications to the vaccine. Overall uptake of two doses of MMR vaccine increased from 86·3% to 90·6%. The valuable uptake achieved demonstrates that an opportunistic offer of MMR vaccine for unimmunized children at schools is feasible and beneficial. MMR vaccine should be offered routinely to unimmunized children at the time of school vaccination programmes, especially in areas with sub-optimal coverage.

The presence of pneumococcal capsular antigen (PCA) in the oropharynx was sought in subjects without respiratory tract infection. Saliva specimens from 239 subjects were analysed by counter-current immunoelectrophoresis using ‘Omni-serum’. 15.5% gave positive reactions but only 24% of positive samples were typable and therefore due to pneumococcal or pneumococcal-like antigens. Given that oropharyngeal production of antigens occurs we investigated whether PCA in expectorated sputum arose from oropharyngeal contamination. Sixteen patients with pneumococcal pneumonia, and with sputum positive for PCA, were investigated in detail. On the basis of serotyping and concentration the PCA in sputum was thought to arise from the lower respiratory tract in all cases. This was confirmed by a simple, novel approach involving the comparison of concentrations in concomitant samples of saliva and sputum. Thus while oropharyngeal production of antigens poses a potential diagnostic problem the latter approach can be used to exclude contamination.

1. Clinical examination of 374 industrial women workers and 289 housewives of comparable type was made in Oxfordshire in August 1942 and repeated four times subsequently on the same groups up to March 1944.

2. It was concluded that the diet of these women was adequate to prevent obvious signs of vitamin deficiency but that there was a general tendency for the general nutritional state, assessed clinically, to deteriorate during the 19 months of this study. This deterioration was associated with complaint of fatigue.

3. The women workers residing in areas where the water was low in iodine content tended to show enlargement of the thyroid gland. The enlargement increased in those already affected, and the incidence also increased.

The author is much indebted to Dr J. O. Irwin for his assistance in statistical presentation of the data and to Dr Harriette Chick for helpful criticism.

An Asian patient with undiagnosed typhoid fever was admitted to a maternity hospital and delivered within 10 mm. Salmonella typhi (phage type D5) was isolated from her blood and from the faeces of her baby. Another woman in a different room of the labour suite at the same time acquired the same organism in her faeces; her brother was admitted to the Infectious Diseases Unit 5 weeks later with typhoid fever. Two babies, born over 60 h after the index case was delivered, became faecal excreters of the same strain and one of them also developed S. typhi osteitis of the hip. These two babies and their mothers were in the same ward as each other, but not that occupied by the infected mother and her baby. Nine other excreters in two of the families involved were identified. The index case and her baby were isolated immediately after delivery, and the relevant rooms in the labour suite were adequately disinfected. No evidence of undisinfected equipment used by the index case and the other infected patients was found, and no spread to staff was detected. The mode of spread remains unknown.

After subcutaneous vaccination of rubella sero-negative children with Wistar RA 27/3 rubella vaccine, haemagglutination-inhibiting antibody titres were compared in sera taken 46 days and 2 years after vaccination. Antibody titres were well maintained in the absence of any known exposure to natural infection.