The adsorption and retention of phosphates in soil systems is of wide environmental importance, and understanding the surface chemistry of halloysite (a common soil clay mineral) is also of prime importance in many emerging technological applications of halloysite nanotubes (HNTs). The adsorption of phosphate anions on tubular halloysite (7 Å) has been studied to gain a greater understanding of the mechanism and kinetics of adsorption on the surface of HNTs. Two well-characterized tubular halloysites with differing morphologies have been studied: one polygonal prismatic and one cylindrical, where the cylindrical form has a greater surface area and shorter tube length. Greater phosphate adsorption of up to 42 μmol g–1 is observed on the cylindrical halloysite when compared to the polygonal prismatic sample, where adsorption reached a maximum of just 15 μmol g–1 compared to a value for platy kaolinite (KGa-2) of 8 μmol g–1. Phosphate adsorption shows strong pH dependence, and the differences in phosphate sorption between the prismatic and cylindrical morphologies suggest that phosphate absorption does not occur at the same pH-dependent alumina edge sites and that the lumen may have a greater influence on uptake for the cylindrical form.

The production of pottery in the traditional manner using local raw materials can provide insights into the provenance of ancient artefacts. This study uses mineralogical analysis to evaluate the raw clays and tempers used for pottery production in Zlakusa (western Serbia). Particle-size distribution, plasticity, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry and differential thermal analysis techniques were applied. The mineral phases identified in the raw clay sample are kaolinite/halloysite, mica/illite, smectite, quartz, paragonite, feldspar, calcite and hematite. The clay body sample is a mixture of raw clay and crushed calcite in a ~50:50 ratio, which was confirmed using various techniques. We have also considered and investigated the technological potential of the sampled materials, taking into consideration their actual and potential applications. It was confirmed that the clay body may be used in the manufacture of bricks and pottery, but its industrial application is limited by the paste recipe.

Temporary excavations during the construction of the Glendoe Hydro Scheme above Loch Ness in the Highlands of Scotland exposed a clay-rich fault gouge in Dalradian Supergroup psammite. The gouge coincides with the mapped trace of the subvertical Sronlairig Fault, a feature related in part to the Great Glen and Ericht–Laidon faults, which had been interpreted to result from brittle deformation during the Caledonian orogeny (c. 420–390 Ma). Exposure of this mica-rich gouge represented an exceptional opportunity to constrain the timing of the gouge-producing movement on the Sronlairig Fault using isotopic analysis to date the growth of authigenic (essentially synkinematic) clay mineralization. A series of fine-size separates was isolated prior to K–Ar analysis. Novel, capillary-encapsulated X-ray diffraction analysis was employed to ensure nearly perfect, random orientation and to facilitate the identification and quantification of mica polytypes. Coarser size fractions are composed of greater proportions of the 2M1 illite polytype. Finer size fractions show increasing proportions of the 1M illite polytype, with no evidence of 2M1 illite in the finest fractions. A series of Illite Age Analysis plots produced excellent R2 values with calculated mean ages of 296 ± 7 Ma (Late Carboniferous–Early Permian) for the oldest (2M1) illite and 145 ± 7 Ma (Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous) for the youngest (1M) illite. The Late Carboniferous–Early Permian (Faulting event 1) age may represent resetting of earlier-formed micas or authigenesis during dextral displacement of the Great Glen Fault Zone (GGFZ). Contemporaneous WNW(NW)–ESE(SE) extension was important for basin development and hydrocarbon migration in the Pentland Firth and Moray Firth regions. The Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous (Faulting event 2) age corresponds with Moray Firth Basin development and indicates that the GGFZ and related structures may have acted to partition the active extension in the Moray Firth region from relative inactivity in the Pentland Firth area at this time. These new age dates demonstrate the long-lived geological activity on the GGFZ, particularly so in post-Caledonian times where other isotopic evidence for younger tectonic overprints is lacking.

The planned final disposal repositories of spent nuclear fuel in several countries, including Finland, pose significant scientific challenges due to their extremely long lifespan. One of the key materials proposed for use in Posiva Oy's repository in Finland is MX-80 bentonite in a compacted, water-saturated state. Border cases of calcium and sodium forms of purified bentonite were included in this study. The MX-80 in the repository is expected to undergo cation exchange due to the composition of the groundwater. The clays were studied at different dry densities between 0.7 and 1.6 g cm–3. The microstructure of the water-saturated, compacted clays was investigated using small-angle X-ray scattering, nuclear magnetic resonance and transmission electron microscopy. Additionally, atomic force microscopy was used to characterize the shape and size of the fine-fraction clay platelets. As expected, the average shape of the fine fractions was smaller than the bulk material, but a more elongated shape was present in the purified material. Mainly due to sample density, the pore structure was noticeably different for the Na form of purified bentonite at 0.7 g cm–3 density, but at higher degrees of compaction, no significant differences were noted between the samples. The laboratory results obtained in this study could be useful for safety and performance analysis of this high-level waste repository where sodium bentonite is used and is expected to change its charge-compensating cation composition during the repository's lifetime. Microstructural data may be used in modelling of diffusion and sorption by surface complexation modelling, for example, or as a basis for mechanical and water transport models.

In deep geological repositories, compacted bentonites have been proposed for use as barrier materials for isolating nuclear waste. The prevailing thermo-hydro-mechanical boundary conditions in the repositories may affect the swelling capacity and permeability of the compacted bentonites. In this study, the effect of preliminary desiccation on the subsequent hydro-mechanical behaviour (swelling pressure and hydraulic conductivity) of compacted Calcigel bentonite was investigated experimentally at 22°C and 80°C. In the first stage of the test, the compacted specimens were subjected to suction-controlled desiccation at 22°C and 80°C using the vapour-equilibrium technique. After the water content reached equilibrium at a given suction, the axial, radial and volumetric shrinkage strains were measured. Afterwards, constant-volume swelling-pressure tests were performed on the desiccated specimens (second test stage) by saturating the dried specimens with deionized water at 22°C and 80°C. At the end of the swelling-pressure test, the hydraulic conductivities of four saturated specimens were measured at each temperature. The volumetric shrinkage strain of the compacted bentonite during desiccation is controlled by suction instead of temperature. In addition, the preliminary desiccation increases both the swelling pressure and hydraulic conductivity of compacted bentonite, particularly if compacted bentonite undergoes extreme desiccation at an applied suction of >700 MPa.

Clay-mineral type and content, bulk mineralogical composition and alteration of bentonite are very important factors for the ultra-long-term stabilization of barriers and backfills in radioactive waste disposal. This study investigates the effects of clay-mineral type and content on the swelling characteristics and permeability of bentonite–sand mixtures with clay minerals using one-dimensional swelling-pressure and constant-pressure permeability tests. The hydraulic conductivity of bentonite–sand–clay mineral mixtures increased with increasing content of non-swelling alteration products of montmorillonite. Furthermore, hydraulic conductivity was comparable to that determined with the Kozeny–Carman equation for a specific surface area, suggesting that hydraulic conductivity may be estimated based on the abundance of expected alteration products of montmorillonite. This study provides a basis for evaluation of the hydraulic conductivity of bentonite–sand mixtures with known quantities of expected alteration products of montmorillonite.

The FEBEX experiment, a full-scale, high-level radioactive waste repository test, ran for ~18 years and hence is the longest-running disposal test to date. The test consisted of a heater emplaced in an envelope of compacted bentonite at the Grimsel test site, Switzerland. The water content of the bentonite was somewhat lower near the heater and increased towards the granite. This phenomenon probably led to gradients in the exchangeable cation population at various locations within the bentonite buffer. The cement (shotcrete) bentonite interface of one block was characterized by a thin (0.1–1.0 mm) reaction zone in which bentonite constituents, carbonates and sulfates occurred. Cation exchange and a slight decrease of the cation exchange capacity were observed near the heater. Oxic corrosion was observed predominantly at the bentonite/steel liner interfaces, pointing towards a role of air entrapped between the liner and heater during emplacement. At the liner surface, intimate intergrowth of bentonite constituents, metal and corrosion products was observed. At the face of the heater, the bentonite blocks were in direct contact with the heater surface without any signs of metal corrosion. Instead, a significant increase in the Mg content was recorded, which is in agreement with previous large-scale disposal tests. The FEBEX experiment proved that the Mg increase and corrosion were independent processes. The increase in Mg may be explained by the formation of trioctahedral domains or the precipitation of neoformed silicates. For the first time, however, brucite was identified as an additional phase that formed at the metal/bentonite interface, pointing towards a special role for Mg mobility in the bentonite barrier.

Despite many reviews and original articles, the actual crystal structure of tubular halloysites remains unclear. Analysis of the structural features of defect-free kaolinite, refined by Bish & von Dreele (1989), shows that the ordered 1Tc kaolinite structure can be described equally well by the orthogonal layer cell {a0, b0, γ0} (γ0 = 90°) or by two enantiomorphic oblique layer cells {a1, b1, γ1} and {a2, b2, γ2}, related to each other by a mirror plane. To simulate diffraction effects for tubular halloysite, the parameters and atomic coordinates of the orthogonal layer unit cell and the layer-displacement vectors t1 and t2 responsible for formation of the kaolinite enantiomorphs were deduced by transformation of the parameters of the defect-free kaolinite refined by Bish & von Dreele (1989). Modelling X-ray diffraction patterns show that the samples consist of either single, two or three phases, with the number and their structural features depending on the morphology of the particles. Samples formed of prismatic particles consist of halloysite-like structure (HLS), kaolinite-like structure (KLS) and halloysite cylindrical structure (HCS) phases occurring in various proportions. Samples of proper cylindrical tubes consist of a single HCS phase, whilst samples formed by particles having morphologies intermediate between proper cylindrical and well-developed prismatic forms consist of the KLS and HCS phases. The KLS phase is comparable to low-ordered platy kaolinite with identical unit-cell parameters, layer-displacement vectors and arbitrary stacking faults, except that the layer displacements are not random as in kaolinite, but are distributed at R = 1 such that t1 and t2 displacements have a strong tendency to be segregated. Structural parameters describing the HLS and KLS phases are identical, but in the HLS phase there is a strong tendency to the regular alternation of the t1 and t2 displacements, and the HLS phases do not contain arbitrary stacking faults. A characteristic feature of the three-phase prismatic samples is that the stacking of the layers along the c* axis is periodic and the layer thicknesses are similar to those of platy kaolinite. In contrast, in the KLS phase formed in samples with particles of intermediate morphologies, the hydrated 10 and 7.25 Å layers are interstratified. The relationship between the structural and morphological features of the coexisting phases suggests a sequence of phase formation from the centre to the surface of halloysite tubes that progresses from the HCS to the HLS via the KLS phase. The results of this study demonstrate that all kaolinite and halloysite (7 Å) varieties are built by the same fundamental structural units.

The geological disposal of radioactive waste, based on a multi-barrier concept wherein the first barrier consists of the metal waste container and the final barrier the host rock, is widely considered the only viable solution to this issue. The bentonite-based seal around the canister forms one of the barriers. The unique swelling and sealing capabilities of bentonite play a major role in repository safety concepts in that they allow the bentonite barrier to withstand serious mechanical damage without its function being compromised.

This paper presents experimental research focusing on the dynamics and mechanics of the sealing of cracks and joints using bentonite-based materials. Physical models were used to simulate the contact point of bentonite-based sealants with cracks in the rock mass. The models examined the ability of the tested material to fill the crack thus preventing the creation of a preferential water pathway. The results show that in most cases total bentonite advance (for the same material) into fissures is, primarily, linearly dependent on fissure width. The absolute value of advance could be related to the overall swelling ability of the material characterized by its swell index or swelling pressure.

Bentonite, which is envisaged as a promising engineered barrier material for the safe disposal of highly radioactive waste, was and is investigated in different large scale tests. The main focus was and is on the stability (or durability) of the bentonite. However, most countries concentrated on one or a few different bentonites only, regardless of the fact that bentonite performance in different applications is highly variable. Therefore, SKB (Svensk Kärnbränslehantering) set up the first large scale test which aimed at a direct comparison of different bentonites. This test was termed the ‘alternative buffer material test’ and considers eleven different clays which were either compacted (blocks) or put into cages to keep the material together. One so-called package consisted of thirty different blocks placed on top of each other. These blocks surrounded a heated iron tube 10 cm in diameter. Altogether three packages were installed in the underground test laboratory Äspö, Sweden. The first package was terminated 28 months after installation and the bentonite had been exposed for the maximum temperature (130°C) for about one year.

Almost all geochemical and mineralogical alterations of the different bentonites (apart from exchangeable cations) were restricted to the contact between iron and bentonite. The increase of the Fe2O3 content was attributed to corrosion of the tube. However, the typical 7 or 14 Å smectite alteration product was not found. At the contact of one sample, siderite was precipitated. Some samples showed anhydrite and organic carbon accumulation and some showed dissolution of clinoptilolite and cristobalite. IR spectroscopy, XRD, and XRF data indicated the formation of trioctahedral minerals/domains in the case of some bentonites. Even more data has to be collected before unambiguous conclusions concerning both alteration mechanisms and bentonite differences can be drawn.

This paper summarizes recent results obtained on chemical modifications of smectites. These include replacement of exchangeable cations with protons, a process connected with smectite autotransformation – attack of protons on the layers and liberation of central atoms from the octahedral and tetrahedral sheets, causing modification of the acid sites on the particles. More severe modifications occur during dissolution in inorganic acids, when the layers are dissolved and threedimensional amorphous silica is formed. The negative charge on the smectite layers can be increased via reduction of structural Fe(III) to Fe(II) or decreased via fixation of small exchangeable cations, such as Li+, upon treatment at elevated temperatures. Heating for 24 h at different temperatures between 100 and 300ºC leads to a series of chemically similar materials of different charge, prepared from the same parent mineral. Such series are suitable for investigation of the effect of the layer charge on selected properties of smectites. Fe(II) can be partly stabilized in reduced smectites by Li fixation upon heating.

Water-saturated bentonite is planned to be used in many countries as an important barrier component in high-level nuclear waste (HLW) repositories. Knowledge about the microstructure of the bentonite and the distribution of water between interlayer (IL) and non-interlayer (non-IL) pores is important for modelling of long-term processes. In this work the microstructure of water-saturated samples prepared from MX-80 bentonite was studied with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and small-angle X-ray scattering spectroscopy (SAXS) coupled with chloride exclusion modelling. The sample dry densities ranged between 0.7 and 1.6 g/cm3. The NMR technique was used to get information about the relative amounts of different water types. Water in smaller volume domains has a shorter relaxation time than that in larger domains due to the average closer proximity of the water to the paramagnetic Fe at the layer surfaces. The results were obtained using 1H NMR T1ρ relaxation time measurements with the short inter-pulse CPMG method. The interpretation of the NMR results was made by fitting a sum of discrete exponentials to the observed decay curves. The SAXS measurement on bentonite samples was used to get information about the size distribution of the IL distance of montmorillonite. The chloride porosity measurements and Donnan exclusion calculations were used together with the SAXS results to evaluate the bentonite microstructure. In the model, the montmorillonite layers were organized in stacks having IL water between the layers and non-IL water between the stacks. In the modelling, the number of layers in the stacks was used as fitting parameters which determined the IL and non-IL surface areas. The fitting parameters were adjusted so that the modelled chloride concentration was equal to the measured one. The NMR studies and SAXS studies coupled with the Cl porosity measurements provided very similar pictures of how the porewater is divided in two phases in bentonite.

Different forms of structural and chemical heterogeneity are considered including mixed-layer minerals, disordered layer structures containing rotational and translational stacking faults, interstratification of trans-vacant (tv) and cis-vacant (cv) layers in true micas, illites and illitesmectite (I-S), short-range order in isomorphous cation distribution etc.

Because determination of various structural and chemical imperfections requires elaboration of new diffraction and spectroscopic methodologies, special attention is paid to recent achievements in the development of new methodological approaches such as a multispecimen simulation of experimental X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns from mixed-layer minerals, with account taken of layer-thickness fluctuations of the second type and possible difference between structures of outer and core layers; experimental determination of thickness distribution of illite crystals by HRTEMand the modified Bertaut-Warren-Averbach technique; XRD and thermal methods for determination of cv and tv layers in true micas, illites and I-S; generalization of Méring's rules to account for the behaviour of non-basal reflections for any defective structure in which two translations are irregularly interstratified; various ab initio calculations devoted to modelling infrared OH vibrations, octahedral cation distribution in dioctahedral 2:1 layer silicates, etc. It is shown that these recentlydeveloped methodologies have revealed new diversity in the structural and chemical heterogeneity of phyllosilicates and clay minerals, provided new insight into the structural mechanisms of their transformation in different geological environments, and discovered new natural processes.

Chemical and mineralogical transformations of phyllosilicates are among the most important in diagenetic environments in all types of rocks because they can exert a large control on the processes taking place in such environments and/or provide constraints for the conditions in which phyllosilicate transformation occurred. Dissolution-precipitation and solid-state transformation are usually the two mechanisms proposed for such reactions depending on the crystal-chemical and morphological similarities between parent and neoformed phases together with knowledge of the environmental conditions. These two mechanisms, however, may be at both ends of the spectrum of those operating and many transformations may take place through a mixture of the two mechanisms, generating observable elements that are characteristic of one or the other. In the present literature, the boundaries between the two mechanisms are not clear, mainly because dissolution-precipitation is sometimes defined at nearly atomic scale. It is proposed here that such small-scale processes are considered as a solid-state transformation, and that dissolution-precipitation requires dissolution of entire mineral particles and their dissolved species to pass into the bulk of the solution. Understanding the reaction mechanisms of diagenetic transformations is an important issue because they impinge on geochemical conditions and variables such as cation mobility, rock volume, fabric changes, rock permeability, stable isotope signature and phyllosilicate crystal-chemistry.

I propose that, in the lower range temperatures at which clay mineral transformations take place, energy considerations favour solid-state transformation, or reactions that involve the breaking of a limited number of bonds, over dissolution of entire grains and precipitation of crystals of the new phase. Large morphological changes are frequently invoked as evidence for a dissolution-precipitation mechanism but changes in particle shape and size may be achieved by particle rupture, particle welding or by hybrid processes in which dissolution-precipitation plays a minor role.

Past and recent studies of phyllosilicate transformations show chemical and structural intermediates indicating a large crystal-chemical versatility, greater than is commonly recognized. These intermediates include tetrahedral sheets of different composition within TOT units (termed polar layers), dioctahedral and trioctahedral domains in the same layer, and 2:1 and 1:1 domains also within the same layers. The existence of such intermediate structures suggests that the reaction mechanisms that generated them are within the realm of the solid-state transformation processes.

An experimental study of the swelling anisotropy of the Callovo-Oxfordian argillaceous rock under hydration is presented. The investigation, which combines environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) and digital image correlation techniques, has been carried out at the micrometric scale of the composite microstructure of the rock. Specimens were hydrated in the ESEM over a wide range of relative humidity and observations conducted on two planes: plane 1 parallel to the bedding plane, and plane 2 perpendicular to it. The observations reveal that the local swelling (which can be quantified at a local gauge length of about 5 μm) is strongly anisotropic in both planes. The global swelling, measured over areas of about 500 μm in width, is also clearly anisotropic in plane 2 (with major swelling direction normal to the bedding plane), but not in plane 1. The global isotropy in plane 1 arises from the uniform distribution of the orientation of anisotropic local strains, while the anisotropic swelling in plane 2 is due to a preferred local orientation.

Bentonite is a potential material for use in the engineered barrier of radioactive waste repositories because of its low hydraulic permeability, self-sealing capability and retention capacity. It is expected that bentonite would react at the elevated temperatures accompanying the radioactive decay in the nuclear waste. The presented study was started in order to improve understanding of the coupled influence of temperature and (pore) water on the physicochemical and mineralogical properties of bentonite during thermal treatment under near-field relevant conditions. Granular Na-bentonite MX-80 was differently saturated (Sr = 1–0.05) and stored at different temperatures (50–150°C) in a closed system. Upon dismantling after different periods of time (3 to 18 months), mineralogical characteristics, cation exchange capacity and content of leachable cations, as well as physicochemical properties such as surface area and water adsorption were investigated.

The results showed a high mineralogical stability. A slight conversion from the sodium to an earth alkali form of the bentonite was observed. However, considerable changes in the physicochemical properties of the bentonite were observed, particularly by treatment above the critical temperature of 120°C. The cation exchange capacity decreased during heating at 150°C by approximately. 10%. The specific surface area dropped by more than 50%. The water uptake capacity under free swelling conditions showed a slight tendency to lower values especially for samples heated for more than 12 months. The water vapour adsorption ability in contrast drops by 25% already within three months at T = 120°C. These changes are mostly related to the variations in the interlayer cation composition and to smectite aggregation processes. The observed alterations are rather subtle. However, temperatures ⩾ 120°C had a remarkable negative influence on different properties of MX-80.

Highly alkaline environments induced by cementitious materials in radioactive waste repositories are likely to alter montmorillonite, the main constituent of bentonite buffer materials, and are likely to cause the physical and/or chemical properties of the buffer materials to deteriorate. The deterioration may cause variation in hydraulic conductivity of the buffer. However, empirical data on the variation of hydraulic conductivity are scarce, mainly because the alteration of compacted buffer materials, sand-bentonite mixtures, is extremely slow. In this study, laboratory experiments were performed to observe changes in hydraulic conductivity of sand-bentonite mixtures, accompanied by their alkaline alteration, using NaOH-based solutions at 80–90°C. Series-1 multi-step alteration/water conduction experiments resulted in an increase in the hydraulic conductivity by one order of magnitude over a 200 day period. Series-2 single step alteration/water conduction experiments revealed a decrease in the montmorillonite contents with time and a resulting increase in the hydraulic conductivity by 30 times over the 67 day period. Series-3 simultaneous alteration/water conduction experiment also demonstrated an increase in the hydraulic conductivity by 30 times over the 150 day period. The results proved that the alkaline alteration of the bentonite buffer can increase the hydraulic conductivity. The data obtained in this study are useful for verification of the code that will be used for assessing the alteration.

In situ migration experiments using different radiotracers have been performed in the HADES Underground Research Facility (URF), built at a depth of 225 m in the Boom Clay formation below the SCK–CEN nuclear site at Mol (Belgium). Small-scale experiments, mimicking laboratory experiments, were carried out with strongly retarded tracers (strontium, caesium, europium, americium and technetium). Contrary to europium, americium and technetium which are subjected to colloid mediated transport, the transport of strontium and caesium can be described by the classic diffusion retardation formalism. For these last two tracers, the transport parameters derived from the in situ experiments can be compared with the laboratory-derived values. For both tracers, the apparent diffusion coefficients measured in the in situ experiments agree well with the laboratory-derived values.

In the large-scale experiments (of the order of metres) performed in the URF, non-retarded or slightly retarded tracers (HTO, iodide and H14CO3–) were used. The migration behaviour of these tracers was predicted based on models applied in performance assessment calculations (classic diffusion retardation) using migration parameter values measured in laboratory experiments. These blind predictions of large-scale experiments agree well in general with the experimental measurements. Fitting the experimental in situ data leads to apparent diffusion coefficients close to those determined by the laboratory experiments. The iodide and H14CO3– data were fitted with a simple analytical expression, and the HTO data were additionally fitted numerically with COMSOL multiphysics, leading to about the same optimal values.

Highly alkaline environments induced by cement-based materials are likely to cause the physical and/or chemical properties of the bentonite buffer materials in radioactive waste repositories to deteriorate. Assessing long-term alteration of concrete/clay systems requires physicochemical models and a number of input parameters. In order to provide reliability in the assessment of the long-term performance of bentonite buffers under disposal conditions, it is necessary to develop and verify reactive transport codes for concrete/clay systems. In this study, a PHREEQC-based, reactive transport analysis code (MC-CEMENT ver. 2) was developed and was verified by comparing results of the calculations with in situ observations of the mineralogical evolution at the concrete/argillite interface. The calculation reproduced the observations such as the mineralogical changes in the argillite limited to within 1 cm in thickness from the interface, formation of CaCO3 and CSH, dissolution of quartz, decrease of porosity in the argillite and an increase in the concrete. These agreements indicate a possibility that models based on lab-scale (∼1 year) experiments can be applied to longer time scales although confidence in the models is necessary for much longer timescales. The fact that the calculations did not reproduce the dissolution of clays and the formation of gypsum indicates that there is still room for improvement in our model.

Some recent works dealing with the concept of order-disorder in clay minerals are considered, including those aspects of order-disorder which appeared in the Brindley & Brown (1980) monograph, i.e. disorder in the distribution of cations, disorder in layer stacking, orderdisorder in mixed-layer systems and finite crystal size as a lattice disorder. Heterogeneity of samples and polymorphous transformations are also considered as other types of disorder. Most of these works emphasize that accurate structural characterization can only be obtained if several techniques are combined (e.g. XRD and IR, EXAFS and Mo¨ssbauer spectroscopies, etc.). Another conclusion is that accurate structural determination provides the key to the genesis of clays.