The objective of the present study was to determine the glycaemic index (GI) and glycaemic load (GL) values of standard portion sizes of Southeast Asian traditional foods. A total of fifteen popular Southeast Asian foods were evaluated. Of these foods, three were soft drinks, while the other twelve were solid foods commonly consumed in this region. In total, forty-seven healthy participants (eighteen males and twenty-nine females) volunteered to consume either glucose at least twice or one of the fifteen test foods after a 10–12 h overnight fast. Blood glucose concentrations were analysed before consumption of the test food, and 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120 min after food consumption, using capillary blood samples. The GI value of each test food was calculated by expressing the incremental area under the blood glucose response curve (IAUC) value of the test food as a percentage of each participant's average IAUC value, with glucose as the reference food. Among the fifteen foods tested, six belonged to low-GI foods (Ice Green Tea, Beehoon, Pandan Waffle, Curry Puff, Youtiao and Kaya Butter Toast), three belonged to medium-GI foods (Barley Drink, Char Siew Pau and Nasi Lemak), and the other six belonged to high-GI foods (Ice Lemon Tea, Chinese Carrot Cake, Chinese Yam Cake, Chee Cheong Fun, Lo Mai Gai and Pink Rice Cake). The GI and GL values of these traditional foods provide valuable information to consumers, researchers and dietitians on the optimal food choice for glycaemic control. Moreover, our dataset provides GI values of fifteen foods that were not previously tested extensively, and it presents values of foods commonly consumed in Southeast Asia.

CHD may ensue from chronic systemic low-grade inflammation. Diet is a modifiable risk factor for both, and its optimisation may reduce post-operative mortality, atrial fibrillation and cognitive decline. In the present study, we investigated the usual dietary intakes of patients undergoing elective coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), emphasising on food groups and nutrients with putative roles in the inflammatory/anti-inflammatory balance. From November 2012 to April 2013, we approached ninety-three consecutive patients (80 % men) undergoing elective CABG. Of these, fifty-five were finally included (84 % men, median age 69 years; range 46–84 years). The median BMI was 27 (range 18–36) kg/m2. The dietary intake items were fruits (median 181 g/d; range 0–433 g/d), vegetables (median 115 g/d; range 0–303 g/d), dietary fibre (median 22 g/d; range 9–45 g/d), EPA+DHA (median 0·14 g/d; range 0·01–1·06 g/d), vitamin D (median 4·9 μg/d; range 1·9–11·2 μg/d), saturated fat (median 13·1 % of energy (E%); range 9–23 E%) and linoleic acid (LA; median 6·3 E%; range 1·9–11·3 E%). The percentages of patients with dietary intakes below recommendations were 62 % (fruits; recommendation 200 g/d), 87 % (vegetables; recommendation 150–200 g/d), 73 % (dietary fibre; recommendation 30–45 g/d), 91 % (EPA+DHA; recommendation 0·45 g/d), 98 % (vitamin D; recommendation 10–20 μg/d) and 13 % (LA; recommendation 5–10 E%). The percentages of patients with dietary intakes above recommendations were 95 % (saturated fat; recommendation < 10 E%) and 7 % (LA). The dietary intakes of patients proved comparable with the average nutritional intake of the age- and sex-matched healthy Dutch population. These unbalanced pre-operative diets may put them at risk of unfavourable surgical outcomes, since they promote a pro-inflammatory state. We conclude that there is an urgent need for intervention trials aiming at rapid improvement of their diets to reduce peri-operative risks.

Socio-economic status (SES) has been associated with measures of diet quality; however, such measures have not directly captured overall eating practices in individuals. Based on the factor analysis of fifty-six food groups from FFQ, associations between patterns of food consumption and SES were examined in a nationwide sample of 17 062 black (34·6 %) and white participants (age >45 years) from the REasons for Geographic And Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) study. Logistic regression models adjusted for age, sex, racial group and geographic region were used to examine adherence to five emergent dietary patterns (convenience, plant-based, sweets/fats, southern and alcohol/salads) according to four levels each of individual education, household income and community-level SES. Further models assessed adherence to these dietary patterns by racial group, and an overall model including both racial groups examined whether the relationships between SES and adherence to these dietary patterns differed among black and white participants. For all the three measures of SES, higher SES had been associated with greater adherence to plant-based and alcohol/salads patterns, but lower adherence to sweets/fats and southern patterns. Statistically significant differences between black and white participants were observed in the associations between household income and adherence to alcohol/salads, individual education and adherence to plant-based and sweets/fats, and community SES and adherence to convenience patterns. As adherence to dietary patterns has been shown to be associated with health outcomes in this population (e.g. stroke), the present study offers valuable insight into behavioural and environmental factors that may contribute to health disparities in the diverse US population.

Improvement of insulin resistance and inflammation is a basic strategy in the management of type 2 diabetes. There is limited evidence that prebiotics improve insulin resistance and inflammation. However, the ameliorating effect of resistant dextrin, as a prebiotic, on insulin resistance and inflammation in patients with type 2 diabetes has not been investigated so far. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the effects of resistant dextrin on insulin resistance and inflammation in type 2 diabetic patients. In a randomised controlled clinical trial, fifty-five women with type 2 diabetes were assigned to two groups: the intervention group (n 30) and the control group (n 25). The intervention group received a daily supplement of 10 g resistant dextrin and the control group received a similar amount of maltodextrin as placebo for 8 weeks. Fasting plasma glucose (FPG), HbA1c, insulin, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), IL-6, TNF-α, malondialdehyde (MDA) and serum endotoxin concentrations were measured before and after the intervention. Data were analysed using SPSS (version 13). Paired and unpaired t tests and ANCOVA were used to compare quantitative variables after the intervention. Patients supplemented with resistant dextrin exhibited a significant decrease in fasting insulin (20·1 pmol/l, 22·8 %), homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (1·3, 24·9 %), quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (0·2, 7·2 %), IL-6 (1·4 pg/ml, 28·4 %), TNF-α (5·4 pg/ml, 18·8 %), MDA (1·2 nmol/ml, 25·6 %) and endotoxin (6·2 endotoxin units/ml, 17·8 %) concentrations than those supplemented with maltodextrin (P< 0·05). Decreases in FPG (0·05 mmol/l, 0·6 %), HbA1c (0·5 %, 9·6 %) and hs-CRP (2·7 ng/ml, 35·1 %) concentrations in the resistant dextrin group were not significant when compared with the maltodextrin group. In conclusion, resistant dextrin supplementation can modulate inflammation and improve insulin resistance in women with type 2 diabetes.

The aim of the present analysis was to evaluate the association of the Mediterranean diet (MeDi), smoking habits and physical activity with all-cause mortality in an Italian population during a 20-year follow-up study. A total of 1693 subjects aged 40–74 who enrolled in the study in 1991–5 were asked about dietary and other lifestyle information at baseline. Adherence to the MeDi was evaluated by the Mediterranean dietary score (MedDietScore). A healthy lifestyle score was computed by assigning 1 point each for a medium or high adherence to the MedDietScore, non-smoking and physical activity. Cox models were used to assess the associations between lifestyle factors and healthy lifestyle scores and all-cause mortality, adjusting for potential confounders. The final sample included 974 subjects with complete data and without chronic disease at baseline. During a median of 17·4 years of follow-up, 193 people died. Subjects with high adherence to the MedDietScore (hazard ratio (HR) 0·62, 95 % CI 0·43, 0·89)), non-smokers (HR 0·71, 95 % CI 0·51, 0·98) and physically active subjects (HR 0·55, 95 % CI 0·36, 0·82) were at low risk of death. Each point increase in the MedDietScore was associated with a significant 5 % reduction of death risk. Subjects with 1, 2 or 3 healthy lifestyle behaviours had a significantly 39, 56, and 73 % reduced risk of death, respectively. A high adherence to MeDi, non-smoking and physical activity were strongly associated with a reduced risk of all-cause mortality in healthy subjects after long-term follow-up. This reduction was even stronger when the healthy lifestyle behaviours were combined.

Serum and erythrocyte (RBC) total folate are indicators of folate status. No nationally representative population data exist for folate forms. We measured the serum folate forms (5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-methylTHF), unmetabolised folic acid (UMFA), non-methyl folate (sum of tetrahydrofolate (THF), 5-formyltetrahydrofolate (5-formylTHF), 5,10-methenyltetrahydrofolate (5,10-methenylTHF)) and MeFox (5-methylTHF oxidation product)) by HPLC–MS/MS and RBC total folate by microbiologic assay in US population ≥ 1 year (n approximately 7500) participating in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2. Data analysis for serum total folate was conducted including and excluding MeFox. Concentrations (geometric mean; detection rate) of 5-methylTHF (37·5 nmol/l; 100 %), UMFA (1·21 nmol/l; 99·9 %), MeFox (1·53 nmol/l; 98·8 %), and THF (1·01 nmol/l; 85·2 %) were mostly detectable. 5-FormylTHF (3·6 %) and 5,10-methenylTHF (4·4 %) were rarely detected. The biggest contributor to serum total folate was 5-methylTHF (86·7 %); UMFA (4·0 %), non-methyl folate (4·7 %) and MeFox (4·5 %) contributed smaller amounts. Age was positively related to MeFox, but showed a U-shaped pattern for other folates. We generally noted sex and race/ethnic biomarker differences and weak (Spearman's r< 0·4) but significant (P< 0·05) correlations with physiological and lifestyle variables. Fasting, kidney function, smoking and alcohol intake showed negative associations. BMI and body surface area showed positive associations with MeFox but negative associations with other folates. All biomarkers showed significantly higher concentrations with recent folic acid-containing dietary supplement use. These first-time population data for serum folate forms generally show similar associations with demographic, physiological and lifestyle variables as serum total folate. Patterns observed for MeFox may suggest altered folate metabolism dependent on biological characteristics.

Previous studies on the association between alcohol intake and the development of the metabolic syndrome (MetS) have yielded inconsistent results. Besides, few studies have analysed the effects of red wine (RW) consumption on the prevalence of the MetS and its components. As moderate RW drinkers have a better lipid profile and lower incidence rates of diabetes, hypertension and abdominal obesity, all components of the MetS, it was hypothesised that moderate RW consumption could be associated with a lower prevalence of the MetS. In the present cross-sectional study of 5801 elderly participants at a high cardiovascular risk included in the PREDIMED (Prevención con Dieta Mediterránea) study, 3897 fulfilled the criteria of the MetS at baseline. RW intake was recorded using a validated 137-item FFQ. Multiple logistic regression analysis was carried out to estimate the association between RW intake and the prevalence of the MetS. Compared with non-drinkers, moderate RW drinkers ( ≥ 1 drink/d) were found to have a reduced risk of prevalent MetS (OR 0·56, 95 % CI 0·45, 0·68; P< 0·001), a lower risk of having an abnormal waist circumference (OR 0·59, 95 % CI 0·46, 0·77; P< 0·001), low HDL-cholesterol concentrations (OR 0·42, 95 % CI 0·32, 0·53; P< 0·001), high blood pressure (OR 0·28, 95 % CI 0·17, 0·45; P< 0·001) and high fasting plasma glucose concentrations (OR 0·67, 95 % CI 0·54, 0·82; P< 0·001) after adjusting for several confounders. This association was found to be stronger in female participants, in participants aged < 70 years and in participants who were former or current smokers. No significant association was found between RW intake ( ≥ 1 drink/d) and TAG concentrations. In conclusion, moderate RW consumption is associated with a lower prevalence of the MetS in an elderly Mediterranean population at a high cardiovascular risk.

Socio-economic groups differ in their material, living, working and social circumstances, which may result in different priorities about their daily-life needs, including the priority to make healthy food choices. Following Maslow's hierarchy of human needs, we hypothesised that socio-economic inequalities in healthy food choices can be explained by differences in the levels of need fulfilment. Postal survey data collected in 2011 (67·2 % response) from 2903 participants aged 20–75 years in the Dutch GLOBE (Gezondheid en Levens Omstandigheden Bevolking Eindhoven en omstreken) study were analysed. Maslow's hierarchy of human needs (measured with the Basic Need Satisfaction Inventory) was added to age- and sex-adjusted linear regression models that linked education and net household income levels to healthy food choices (measured by a FFQ). Most participants (38·6 %) were in the self-actualisation layer of the pyramid. This proportion was highest among the highest education group (47·6 %). Being in a higher level of the hierarchy was associated with a higher consumption of fruits and vegetables as well as more healthy than unhealthy bread, snack and dairy consumption. Educational inequalities in fruit and vegetable intake (B= − 1·79, 95 % CI − 2·31, − 1·28 in the lowest education group) were most reduced after the hierarchy of needs score was included (B= − 1·57, 95 % CI − 2·09, − 1·05). Inequalities in other healthy food choices hardly changed after the hierarchy of needs score was included. People who are satisfied with higher-level needs make healthier food choices. Studies aimed at understanding socio-economic inequalities in food choice behaviour need to take differences in the priority given to daily-life needs by different socio-economic groups into account, but Maslow's pyramid offers little help.

The present study investigated the LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C)-lowering effects of psyllium in Brazilian dyslipidaemic children and adolescents. A total of fifty-one individuals (6–19 years) with mild-to-moderate hypercholesterolaemia were evaluated by conducting a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel clinical trial. Over an 8-week trial period, the participants were randomly allocated to one of two groups (control: n 25 and psyllium: n 26) using a computer-generated random number sequence. Fasting blood samples, dietary records and anthropometric data were collected. Both groups were treated with the National Cholesterol Education Program Step 2 diet for 6 weeks before randomisation. After this run-in period, a daily supplement of 7·0 g psyllium was given to the intervention group, while an equivalent amount of cellulose was given to the control group. Statistically significant changes between the control and intervention groups over time were observed for total cholesterol (7·7 %; − 0·39 mmol/l; P= 0·003) and LDL-C (10·7 %; − 0·36 mmol/l; P= 0·01). None of the participants reported any aversion to the smell, taste, appearance or texture of psyllium. No serious adverse effects were reported during the study. In addition to causing a significant reduction in LDL-C concentrations, psyllium therapy was found to be both safe and acceptable for the treatment of hypercholesterolaemic children and adolescents.

As under-reporting of dietary intake, particularly by overweight and obese subjects, is common in dietary surveys, biases inherent in the use of self-reported dietary information may distort true diet–obesity relationships or even create spurious ones. However, empirical evidence of this possibility is limited. The present cross-sectional study compared the relationships of 24 h urine-derived and self-reported intakes of Na, K and protein with obesity. A total of 1043 Japanese women aged 18–22 years completed a 24 h urine collection and a self-administered diet history questionnaire. After adjustment for potential confounders, 24 h urine-derived Na intake was associated with a higher risk of general obesity (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2) and abdominal obesity (waist circumference ≥ 80 cm; both P for trend = 0·04). For 24 h urine-derived protein intake, positive associations with general and abdominal obesity were observed (P for trend = 0·02 and 0·053, respectively). For 24 h urine-derived K intake, there was an inverse association with abdominal obesity (P for trend = 0·01). Conversely, when self-reported dietary information was used, only inverse associations between K intake and general and abdominal obesity were observed (P for trend = 0·04 and 0·02, respectively), with no associations of Na or protein intake. In conclusion, we found positive associations of Na and protein intakes and inverse associations of K intake with obesity when using 24 h urinary excretion for estimating dietary intakes. However, no association was observed based on using self-reported dietary intakes, except for inverse association of K intake, suggesting that the ability of self-reported dietary information using the diet history questionnaire for investigating diet–obesity relationships is limited.

A number of studies have examined dietary patterns in various populations. However, to study to what extent such patterns capture meaningful differences in consumption of foods is of interest. In the present study, we identified important dietary patterns in Norwegian postmenopausal women (age 50–69 years, n 361), and evaluated these patterns by examining their associations with plasma carotenoids. Diet was assessed by a 253-item FFQ. These 253 food items were categorised into forty-six food groups, and dietary patterns were identified using principal component analysis. We used the partial correlation coefficient (radj) and multiple linear regression analysis to examine the associations between the dietary patterns and the plasma carotenoids α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, lycopene and zeaxanthin. Overall, four dietary patterns were identified: the ‘Western’; ‘Vegetarian’; ‘Continental’; ‘High-protein’. The ‘Western’ dietary pattern scores were significantly inversely correlated with plasma lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene and total carotenoids ( − 0·25 ≤ radj≤ − 0·13). The ‘Vegetarian’ dietary pattern scores were significantly positively correlated with all the plasma carotenoids (0·15 ≤ radj≤ 0·24). The ‘Continental’ dietary pattern scores were significantly inversely correlated with plasma lutein and α-carotene (radj= − 0·13). No significant association between the ‘High-protein’ dietary pattern scores and the plasma carotenoids was found. In conclusion, the healthy dietary pattern, the ‘Vegetarian’ pattern, is associated with a more favourable profile of the plasma carotenoids than our unhealthy dietary patterns, the ‘Western’ and ‘Continental’ patterns.

Exploring changes in children's diet over time and the relationship between these changes and socio-economic status (SES) may help to understand the impact of social inequalities on dietary patterns. The aim of the present study was to describe dietary patterns by applying a cluster analysis to 9301 children participating in the baseline (2–9 years old) and follow-up (4–11 years old) surveys of the Identification and Prevention of Dietary- and Lifestyle-induced Health Effects in Children and Infants Study, and to describe the cluster memberships of these children over time and their association with SES. We applied the K-means clustering algorithm based on the similarities between the relative frequencies of consumption of forty-two food items. The following three consistent clusters were obtained at baseline and follow-up: processed (higher frequency of consumption of snacks and fast food); sweet (higher frequency of consumption of sweet foods and sweetened drinks); healthy (higher frequency of consumption of fruits, vegetables and wholemeal products). Children with higher-educated mothers and fathers and the highest household income were more likely to be allocated to the healthy cluster at baseline and follow-up and less likely to be allocated to the sweet cluster. Migrants were more likely to be allocated to the processed cluster at baseline and follow-up. Applying the cluster analysis to derive dietary patterns at the two time points allowed us to identify groups of children from a lower socio-economic background presenting persistently unhealthier dietary profiles. This finding reflects the need for healthy eating interventions specifically targeting children from lower socio-economic backgrounds.

Higher variety of recommended foods, identified arbitrarily based on dietary guidelines, has been associated with better health status. Nutrient profiling is designed to identify objectively, based on nutrient content, healthier foods whose consumption should be encouraged. The objective was to assess the prospective associations between total food variety (food variety score, FVS) and variety from selected recommended and non-recommended foods (RFV and NRFV, respectively) and risk of chronic disease and mortality. In 1991–3, 7251 participants of the Whitehall II study completed a 127-item FFQ. The FVS was defined as the number of foods consumed more than once a week. (N)RFV(Ofcom) and (N)RFV(SAIN,LIM) were similarly derived selecting healthier (or less healthier) foods as defined by the UK Ofcom and French SAIN,LIM nutrient profile models, respectively. Multi-adjusted Cox regressions were fitted with incident CHD, diabetes, CVD, cancer and all-cause mortality (318, 754, 137, 251 and 524 events, respectively – median follow-up time 17 years). RFV and NRFV scores were mutually adjusted. The FVS (fourth v. first quartile) was associated with a 39 and 26 % reduction of prospective CHD and all-cause mortality risk, respectively. The RFV(Ofcom) (third v. first quartile) was associated with a 27 and 35 % reduction of all-cause mortality and cancer mortality risk, respectively; similar associations were suggested, but not significant for the RFV(SAIN,LIM). No prospective associations were observed with NRFV scores. The results strengthen the rationale to promote total food variety and variety from healthy foods. Nutrient profiling can help in identifying those foods whose consumption should be encouraged.

The present analysis aimed to investigate the changes in the reported portion sizes (PS) of foods and beverages commonly consumed by Irish adults (18–64 years) from the North South Ireland Food Consumption Survey (NSIFCS) (1997–2001) and the National Adult Nutrition Survey (NANS) (2008–10). Food PS, which are defined as the weight of food (g) consumed per eating occasion, were calculated for comparable foods and beverages in two nationally representative cross-sectional Irish food consumption surveys and were published in NSIFCS and NANS. Repeated measure mixed model analysis compared reported food PS at the total population level as well as subdivided by sex, age, BMI and social class. A total of thirteen commonly consumed foods were examined. The analysis demonstrated that PS significantly increased for five foods (‘white sliced bread’, ‘brown/wholemeal breads’, ‘all meat, cooked’, ‘poultry, roasted’ and ‘milk’), significantly decreased for three (‘potatoes’, ‘chips/wedges’ and ‘ham, sliced’) and did not significantly change for five foods (‘processed potato products’, ‘bacon/ham’, ‘cheese’, ‘yogurt’ and ‘butter/spreads’) between the NSIFCS and the NANS. The present study demonstrates that there was considerable variation in the trends in reported food PS over this period.

The present study analyses the gene expression profile of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from obese boys. The aims of the present study were to identify baseline differences between low responders (LR) and high responders (HR) after 10 weeks of a moderate energy-restricted dietary intervention, and to compare the gene expression profile between the baseline and the endpoint of the nutritional intervention. Spanish obese boys (age 10–14 years) were advised to follow a 10-week moderate energy-restricted diet. Participants were classified into two groups based on the association between the response to the nutritional intervention and the changes in BMI standard deviation score (BMI-SDS): HR group (n 6), who had a more decreased BMI-SDS; LR group (n 6), who either maintained or had an even increased BMI-SDS. The expression of 28 869 genes was analysed in PBMC from both groups at baseline and after the nutritional intervention, using the Affymetrix Human Gene 1.1 ST 24-Array plate microarray. At baseline, the HR group showed a lower expression of inflammation and immune response-related pathways, which suggests that the LR group could have a more developed pro-inflammatory phenotype. Concomitantly, LEPR and SIRPB1 genes were highly expressed in the LR group, indicating a tendency towards an impaired immune response and leptin resistance. Moreover, the moderate energy-restricted diet was able to down-regulate the inflammatory ‘mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling pathway’ in the HR group, as well as some inflammatory genes (AREG and TNFAIP3). The present study confirms that changes in the gene expression profile of PBMC in obese boys may help to understand the weight-loss response. However, further research is required to confirm these findings.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is secreted by distal enteroendocrine cells in response to luminal nutrients, and exerts insulinotropic and anorexigenic effects. Although GLP-1 secretory responses under established obese or diabetic conditions have been studied, it has not been investigated whether or how postprandial GLP-1 responses were affected during the progression of diet-induced obesity. In the present study, a meal tolerance test was performed every week in rats fed a high-fat and high-sucrose (HF/HS) diet to evaluate postprandial glycaemic, insulin and GLP-1 responses. In addition, gastric emptying was assessed by the acetaminophen method. After 8 weeks of HF/HS treatment, portal vein and intestinal mucosa were collected to examine GLP-1 production. Postprandial glucose in response to normal meal ingestion was increased in the HF/HS group within 2 weeks, and its elevation gradually returned close to that of the control group until day 50. Slower postprandial gastric emptying was observed in the HF/HS group on days 6, 13 and 34. Postprandial GLP-1 and insulin responses were increased in the HF/HS group at 7 weeks. Higher portal GLP-1 and insulin levels were observed in the HF/HS group, but mucosal gut hormone mRNA levels were unchanged. These results revealed that the postprandial GLP-1 response to meal ingestion is enhanced during the progression of diet-induced glucose intolerance and obesity in rats. The boosted postprandial GLP-1 secretion by chronic HF/HS diet treatment suggests increased sensitivity to luminal nutrients in the gut, and this may slow the establishment of glucose intolerance and obesity.

The aim of the present study was to explore the influencing factors of urinary iodine concentration (UIC) and the relationship between iodised salt concentration and UIC in order to give suggestions for the surveillance of iodine nutrition status. For this purpose, a multi-stage cluster sampling technique was employed in the present cross-sectional study. Correlations between UIC and salt iodine concentration were evaluated by Spearmen's correlation analysis. Risk factors of having a lower UIC were identified by logistic regression analysis, and the equations of UIC and salt iodine concentration were fitted by curve regression analysis. The median UIC was found to be 162·0 (25th–75th percentile 98·2–248·6) μg/l. The UIC was correlated with salt iodine concentration (Spearman's ρ = 0·144, P< 0·05). The multiple logistic regression analysis found the following influencing factors for having a lower UIC: age (OR 0·98, 95 % CI 0·98, 0·98, P< 0·05); sex (OR 0·81, 95 % CI 0·71, 0·92, P< 0·05); education level (OR 0·87, 95 % CI 0·83, 0·90, P< 0·05); status of occupation (OR 0·91, 95 % CI 0·86, 0·96, P< 0·05); occupation (OR 1·03, 95 % CI 1·00, 1·05, P< 0·05); pickled food (OR 1·24, 95 % CI 1·08, 1·42, P< 0·05); salt iodine concentration (OR 1·03, 95 % CI 1·02, 1·03, P< 0·05). The curve regression analysis found that UIC (y) and salt iodine concentration (x) could be expressed by the following equation: y= 1·5772x1·4845. In conclusion, the median UIC of individuals in Zhejiang Province falls within optimal status as recommended by the WHO/UNICEF/International Council for Control of IDD. To maintain optimal iodine nutrition status, salt iodine concentration should be in the range of 16·4 to 34·3 mg/kg.

Phyto-oestrogens are a family of plant-derived xeno-oestrogens that have been shown to prevent cancer in some studies. Whether phyto-oestrogen intake affects obesity status in a population is still unclear. In the present cross-sectional study, we examined the association of urinary phyto-oestrogen metabolites with obesity and metabolic parameters in children and adults. Data from 1294 children (age 6–19 years) and from 3661 adults (age ≥ 20 years) who participated in the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001–10 were analysed. Multivariate logistic regression was applied to investigate the associations of BMI, waist circumference, serum metabolites (total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, TAG, fasting glucose and fasting insulin) and the metabolic syndrome with urinary phyto-oestrogen levels. When stratified by age and sex, we found a stronger association (OR 0·30, 95 % CI 0·17, 0·54; P< 0·001) between urinary enterolactone levels and obesity in adult males (age 20–60 years) than in children (age 12–19 years) or the elderly (age >60 years) in the same survey. However, no associations with urinary daidzein, O-desmethylangolensin, equol, enterodiol or genistein were found in the overall population. We also found that the elevation of enterolactone levels was inversely associated with TAG levels, fasting glucose levels, fasting insulin levels and the metabolic syndrome in males aged 20–60 years, but positively associated with HDL-cholesterol levels. The present results provide epidemiological evidence that urinary enterolactone is inversely associated with obesity in adult males.

Beverages are among the first independent product choices that school-aged children will make and unhealthy choices can be a threat to children's health. The present study investigated which beverage attributes shape adults' and children's health perceptions. For this purpose, 100 children (fifty-two boys; mean age 8·8 (sd 1·1) years) and their parents were invited to independently perform a beverage-sorting task. Participants were asked to place twenty commonly consumed soft drinks in a line ranging from ‘unhealthy’ to ‘healthy’. The sorting data were analysed using multidimensional scaling with property fitting and hierarchical clustering. Sugar content (βparents= − 0·78, βchildren= − 0·68; P< 0·001), artificial sweeteners (βparents= − 0·68, βchildren= − 0·66; P< 0·001), fruit content (βparents= 0·33, βchildren= 0·36; P< 0·05) and caffeine content (βparents= − 0·45, βchildren= − 0·46; P< 0·01) were found to be the predictors of parents' and children's health perceptions. Parents' and children's estimates were strongly related (rs 0·70 (sd 0·15)); both groups classified the beverages into similar clusters. However, compared with their parents, children perceived beverages such as fruit juices and grapefruit soda to be healthier. In conclusion, parents' and children's health perceptions were strongly related based on the same relevant attributes for evaluation. However, fruit content was considered a more important criterion by children, which might lead to differences in the health perception between children and their parents. Low fruit content and the belief of beverages being ‘natural’ could positively bias perceptions. Therefore, certain soft drinks such as squashes or fruit lemonades are problematic, and the consumer's awareness of their low nutritional quality should be raised.

Dietary patterns represent the combined effects of foods, and illustrate efficaciously the impact of diet on health outcomes. Some findings of previous studies have limited applicability to Chinese children due to cultural factors. The presnt study was designed to identify dietary patterns and determine their relationships with obesity among Chinese children and adolescents. Data collected from 1282 children and adolescents aged 7–17 years from the 2011 China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) were used. Dietary patterns were identified using factor analysis of data from three consecutive 24-h dietary recalls. Weight and height were measured following standard methods, and BMI was calculated. Three dietary patterns were identified: modern (high intakes of milk, fast foods and eggs), traditional north (high intakes of wheat, tubers and other cereals) and traditional south (high intakes of vegetables, rice and pork). After adjusting for some confounders and total energy intake, subjects in the highest quartiles of the modern and traditional north patterns were found to have significantly greater risk of obesity (OR 3·10, 95 % CI 1·52, 6·32, and OR 2·42, 95 % CI 1·34, 4·39, respectively). In conclusion, the modern dietary pattern and the traditional north dietary pattern were associated with higher risk of obesity. Promoting healthier eating patterns could help prevent obesity in Chinese children.