Optical interactions can generally be categorized into parametric processes and nonparametric processes. A parametric process does not cause any change in the quantum-mechanical state of the material, whereas a nonparametric process causes some changes in the quantum-mechanical state of the material. Phase matching among interacting optical fields is not automatically satisfied in a parametric process but is always automatically satisfied in a nonparametric process. All second-order nonlinear optical processes are parametric in nature. The nonlinear polarization and phase-matching condition of each second-order process are discussed in the second section. Some third-order nonlinear optical processes are parametric, and others are nonparametric. The nonlinear polarization and phase-matching condition of each third-order process are discussed in the third section.

Stimulated Raman scattering leads to Raman gain for a Stokes signal at a frequency that is down-shifted at a Raman frequency, and stimulated Brillouin scattering leads to Brillouin gain at a frequency that is down-shifted by a Brillouin frequency. This chapter begins with a general discussion of Raman scattering and Brillouin scattering. After a discussion of the characteristics of the Raman gain, Raman amplification and generation based on stimulated Raman scattering are addressed through their applications as Raman amplifiers, Raman generators, and Raman oscillators. After a discussion of the characteristics of the Brillouin gain, Brillouin amplification and generation based on stimulated Brillouin scattering are addressed through their applications as Brillouin amplifiers, Brillouin generators, and Brillouin oscillators. This chapter ends with a comparison of Raman and Brillouin devices.

The general formulation for optical propagation in a nonlinear medium is given in this chapter. In the first section, the general equation for the propagation in a spatially homogeneous medium is obtained. This equation can be expressed either in the frequency domain or in the time domain. In the second section, the general pulse propagation equation for a waveguide mode is obtained in the time domain. In the third section, the propagation of an optical pulse in an optical Kerr medium is considered for three useful equations: nonlinear equation with spatial diffraction for propagation in a spatially homogeneous medium, nonlinear Schrödinger equation without spatial diffraction for propagation in a spatially homogeneous medium or in a waveguide, and generalized nonlinear Schrödinger equation for the nonlinear propagation of an optical pulse that has a pulsewidth down to a few optical cycles or that undergoes extreme spectral broadening.

This chapter addresses optical wave propagation in isotropic and anisotropic media. This chapter begins with general discussions on the energy flow and power exchange as an optical wave propagates through a medium. The next two sections respectively address the propagation of plane waves in isotropic and anisotropic homogeneous media. The polarization normal modes of propagation are defined for a birefringent crystal, which can be uniaxial with only one optical axis or biaxial with two optical axes. The concepts and characteristics of phase velocity, group velocity, and various types of dispersion are then discussed.

The coupled-wave theory is used in the analysis of the interactions among optical waves of different frequencies. In the analysis of the coupling of waveguide modes, coupled-mode theory has to be used. In general, both the interaction among different optical frequencies and the characteristics of the waveguide modes have to be considered for a nonlinear optical interaction in an optical waveguide. In the first section, a combination of coupled-wave and coupled-mode theories is formulated for the analysis of nonlinear optical interaction in a waveguide. In the second section, the coupled equations for a parametric nonlinear interaction in a waveguide are formulated by using three-frequency parametric interaction, second-harmonic generation, and the optical Kerr effect as three examples. In the third section, the coupled equations for a nonparametric nonlinear interaction in a waveguide are formulated by using stimulated Raman scattering and two-photon absorption as two examples.

This chapter addresses the physics and applications of optical saturation, including optical absorption saturation and optical gain saturation. Optical saturation is a nonlinear optical process that usually cannot be approximated with a perturbation expansion as a second-order or third-order nonlinear process. Instead, a fully nonlinear analysis is required. Following a discussion on the general physics and characteristics of absorption saturation and gain saturation in the first section, the properties and applications of saturable absorbers and saturated amplifiers are discussed in the second and third sections. The last section covers laser oscillation as a consequence of optical gain saturation.

The coupled-wave theory deals with the coupling of waves of different frequencies in nonlinear optical interactions. In the first section, the general coupled-wave equation is derived. Its form under the slowly varying amplitude approximation is then obtained, followed by a form under the transverse approximation. In the second section, the coupled-wave equations for a parametric process are formulated by using three-frequency parametric interaction and second-harmonic generation as two examples. In the third section, the coupled-wave equations for a nonparametric process are formulated by using stimulated Raman scattering and two-photon absorption as two examples.

Most parametric frequency-conversion processes are not automatically phase matched, thus requiring arrangements to achieve phase matching. If a parametric frequency-conversion process is perfectly phase matched, optical power can be efficiently converted from one frequency to another. Otherwise, the conversion efficiency is reduced. The geometric arrangement and the conditions for collinear phase matching and noncollinear phase matching are discussed in the first section. The second section addresses the concept and techniques of birefringent phase matching, which employs the birefringence of a uniaxial or biaxial crystal to accomplish phase matching of a nonlinear optical process. It is the most commonly used method of obtaining collinear phase matching for a second-order frequency-conversion process. The third section covers the concept and techniques of quasi-phase matching, which uses periodic modulation of the nonlinear susceptibility for phase matching. Phase matching in an optical waveguide is discussed in the fourth section.

Optical nonlinearity emerges from nonlinear interaction of light with matter. In this chapter, the basic concept and formulation of light‒matter interaction are discussed through a semiclassical approach with the behavior of the optical field classically described by Maxwell’s equations and the state of the material quantum mechanically described by a wave function governed by the Hamiltonian of the material. An optical field interacts with a material through its interaction with the electrons in the material. A Schrödinger electron is nonrelativistic with a nonzero mass, and a Dirac electron is relativistic with a zero mass. The interaction Hamiltonian can be expressed in terms of the vector and scalar potentials by using the Coulomb gauge. It can be expressed in terms of the electric and magnetic fields through multipole expansion as a series of electric and magnetic multipole interactions, with the first term being the electric dipole interaction. The electric polarization of a material induced by an optical field is obtained through density matrix analysis. The optical susceptibility of the material is then obtained from the electric polarization.

Bistability is a phenomenon that has two stable states under one condition. A bistable device has two possible stable output values for one input condition. The necessary conditions for optical bistability are optical nonlinearity and positive feedback. Depending on whether the optical nonlinearity that is responsible for the bistable function comes from the real or the imaginary part of a nonlinear susceptibility, a bistable optical device can be classified as either dispersive or absorptive. Depending on the type of feedback, a bistable optical device can also be classified as either intrinsic or hybrid. After a general discussion on the condition for optical bistability, this chapter covers dispersive optical bistability, absorptive optical bistability, and hybrid optical bistability of passive optical systems in three sections. The final chapter covers optical bistability in the active optical system of a laser oscillator.

All-optical modulation of an optical wave is accomplished through a nonlinear optical process that involves one or multiple optical waves. A nonlinear optical modulator can be based on either self-modulation or cross-modulation. Such nonlinear optical modulators and switches are also known as all-optical modulators and all-optical switches, respectively. Most all-optical modulators and switches are based on third-order nonlinear optical processes, but some rely on the high-order process of optical saturation, either absorption saturation or gain saturation. There are two fundamentally different types of all-optical modulators and switches: the dispersive type and the absorptive type. All-optical modulation of the dispersive type, which is based on the optical Kerr effect, is discussed in this chapter. In the first four sections, the physics, phenomena, and measurement of the optical Kerr effect are discussed. The last two sections cover all-optical modulators and switches in the bulk form and those in the waveguide form.

Supercontinuum generation is a nonlinear optical process that produces a broad continuous spectrum, often spanning over an octave, when an intense laser beam of an initially narrow bandwidth propagates through a nonlinear medium. Given a sufficiently high laser power, supercontinuum generation can be observed in any material. In general, many nonlinear processes are involved, including self-phase modulation, cross-phase modulation, four-wave mixing, modulation instability, self-focusing, stimulated Raman scattering, soliton dynamics, and dispersive wave generation. The specific nonlinear optical processes that are involved depend on the optical properties of the material and on the wavelength and the temporal characteristics of the laser beam. The usage of optical fibers greatly facilitated the development of supercontinuum generation because an optical fiber provides the favorable combination of both high intensity and long interaction length for efficient supercontinuum generation.

Optical nonlinearity manifests nonlinear interaction of an optical field with a material. The origin of optical nonlinearity is the nonlinear response of electrons in a material to an optical field. Macroscopically, the nonlinear optical response of a material is described by an optical polarization that is a nonlinear function of the optical field. This optical polarization is obtained through density matrix analysis by using the interaction Hamiltonian, which can be approximated with electric dipole interaction in most cases. When the interaction Hamiltonian is small compared to the Hamiltonian of the system, it can be treated as a perturbation to the system by expanding the density matrix in a perturbation series and the total optical polarization in terms of a series of polarizations. In most nonlinear optical processes of interest, the perturbation expansion of the polarization is valid and only the three terms of linear, second-order, and third-order polarizations are significant. The perturbation expansion is not valid in the cases of high-order harmonic generation and optical saturation. Then, a full analysis is required.

There are basically two types of nonlinear optical frequency converters. The majority are based on parametric processes, which require phase matching. Devices that use the nonparametric third-order processes of stimulated Raman or Brillouin scattering to shift the optical frequency are the other type. In this chapter, only those based on parametric processes are considered. The first six sections cover practical optical frequency converters that are based on second-order parametric processes, including second-harmonic generation, sum-frequency generation, difference-frequency generation, optical parametric up-conversion, optical parametric down-conversion, optical parametric amplification, optical parametric generation, and optical parametric oscillation. Frequency conversion based on the third-order parametric four-wave mixing of small frequency shifts is discussed in Section 10.7. The generation of high-order harmonics is discussed in Section 10.8.