Purpose and objectives

COSPAR shall be a Special Committee of the ICSU.

The purpose of COSPAR is to further on an international scale the progress of all kinds of scientific investigations which are carried out with the use of rockets or rocket-propelled vehicles. COSPAR shall be concerned with fundamental research. It will not normally concern itself with such technological problems as propulsion, construction of rockets, guidance and control.

These objectives shall be achieved through the maximum development of space research programs by the international community of scientists working through ICSU and its adhering national academics and unions. Any arrangements involving national territories should be made by bilateral or multilateral discussion between the nations concerned. As a non-political organization, COSPAR shall not, as a matter of policy, recommend any specific assistance of one nation by another. It will, however, welcome information concerning such arrangements and provide a convenient assembly in which such arrangements may informally be proposed and discussed.

The formation of the Provisional Space Science Board for Europe

In Chapter 4 we discussed the important role played by the Space Science Board (SSB) of the US National Academy of Sciences in relation to the space science programme of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The Board gives expert advice on the long-term programme and generally acts as a body to which members of the space science community may turn to air any dissatisfaction they may have. On the other hand, the Board does not interfere in the day-to-day running of NASA and its short term programme.

In 1973 the SSB, then under the Chairmanship of R.M. Goody, expressed their concern about the need for an international advisory body for space science. In a letter to Sir David Martin, the Executive Secretary of the Royal Society, H. Friedman, a member of the SSB, stated ‘our concern is related to the growing interest in joint development projects for space exploration … much of the interest can be directly attributed to the increasing national budgets and growing political emphasis placed on sharing the costs of major projects internationally. Without an independent and respected source of scientific advice we believe it is possible that the science content and planning for joint projects may be overly influenced by aerospace industry requirements ….’ He then suggested that he would welcome the opportunity to discuss the idea of an international advisory agency during his forthcoming visit to London to attend a meeting of the Bureau of SCOSTEP.

The growth of space science in the United Kingdom naturally depended very much on the scientific and technological background in the country in the years just after the Second World War. It was a fortunate fact that, by 1953, while there were a number of scientists whose research work would be greatly expanded if space research techniques became available, technological progress through defence requirements had proceeded to a stage where it could be utilized successfully. Once these possibilities became apparent to the scientists and arrangements made so that they could be realized, space science developed rapidly. The story of the way this occurred, involving many fortuitous circumstances, and of how British space science has developed to the time of writing, forms the subject matter of this account.

Ionospheric research in Britain

We begin by describing the scientific and technological background, the former in this chapter and the latter in the following chapter. Perhaps the most important early scientific discoveries in the present context were those of the E region of the ionosphere made by E.V. Appleton and M.A.F. Barnett in 1925 and the F region by Appleton in 1927. These confirmed the speculation of Kennelly and Heaviside that an ionized region in the high atmosphere was responsible for the long-distance transmission of radio waves demonstrated by Marconi. Appleton enthusiastically expanded this work to study the properties of the ionosphere and soon there was a vigorous school of British scientists interested in research in this subject.

British space scientists have devoted a great deal of attention to research in those branches of astronomy which became practicable only after the availability of space vehicles. We discuss here especially their major contributions to ultra-violet and X-ray astronomy both solar and cosmic. Most of the British work in γ-ray astronomy and in infra-red astronomy (outside the atmospheric window) has been carried out very effectively using balloons and so does not fall within the scope of the present account. The very recent successful launching and operation of the infra-red astronomy satellite IRAS points the way to a strong involvement of British space scientists in infra-red astronomy also.

We begin by discussing first solar ultra-violet and X-ray astronomy, then cosmic ultra-violet astronomy followed by cosmic X-ray astronomy and brief sections on γ-ray and infra-red astronomy.

Solar X-ray and ultra-violet astronomy

The first X-rays entering the atmosphere from an external source were observed by T.R. Burnight in 1948 who exposed Schumann plates with thin beryllium filters, carried to an altitude of 96 km in an Aerobee rocket. On recovery and development, the plates were found to be blackened, showing that they had been exposed to radiation capable of penetrating the beryllium. The first quantitative measurements of X-rays, which clearly originated in the sun, were made by H. Friedman, H. Lichtman and E.T. Byram a year later using a photon counter flown in a V2 rocket.

The Scientific Case for European Co-operation in Space Research.

The European co-operation should augment and in no case supplant the national programmes of the associated countries.

Vertical rocket sounding

The creation of a central European space agency will provide help, organization facilities and, if necessary, financial support for:

Scientific programme

In addition to augmenting the work of already established national programmes and making possible the participation of smaller nations in space research, the following synoptic studies would be made possible:

1. (a) Synoptic study of the atmosphere from 30-90 km.

2. (b) Synoptic study of the atmosphere in the region between 90-200 km.

3. (c) Study of solar activity.

In the previous chapter an account was given of the events which led to the establishment of a co-operative programme in which, in the first instance, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) would launch three satellites at roughly yearly intervals with British scientific instruments aboard. We now describe in more detail the nature of the programme and how it worked out in practice. Most attention will be concentrated on the initial three satellites but something will also be said of the three further satellites whose launching was arranged at a later stage.

General co-operative arrangements

It was likely that a first launch for UK experiments would take place from the launch site on Wallops Island on the east coast of the USA. The arrangements with experimenters would be those normal in the USA. Each experimenter would have first call on his own data, and if the first launch attempt failed every experimenter could expect a second launch for his equipment. In return, NASA would require the equipment to have satisfied the stringent environmental tests appropriate to the launch and orbit conditions. In addition, evidence that the scientific instruments had operated satisfactorily in vertical sounding rockets would be required. If this was not possible in all cases using British rockets NASA would consider offering test flights in American rockets. Financial arrangements would be on a ‘no billing’ basis, each party paying for those items for which it was responsible.

As we have explained in Chapter 1, the British scientists who were most interested initially in the use of rockets for scientific research were those concerned with the ionosphere so it is not surprising that, since the inception of a rocket research programme, a great deal of attention has been directed towards ionospheric studies. This has involved the use of a wide variety of techniques ranging from ground-based radio tracking of satellites to in situ measurements of ionospheric properties from space vehicles. In fact, as we shall see, much of the work has been concerned with the topside ionosphere and this has naturally connected up with studies of the magnetosphere to which many ionospheric physicists have made major contributions.

Ways and means

At the time when these programmes were planned, most knowledge of the ionosphere was confined to the information obtained from ground-based sounding which basically provided the height profile of electron concentration above the sounding station. Even this was incomplete as explained in Chapter 1, p. 2, especially as it could provide no information about the region above the F layer maximum – the topside ionosphere. No direct method of determining other important ionospheric parameters such as the electron temperature or the positive ion composition was available. By the early 1950s the impact of the new rocket techniques was making itself felt in that exploratory measurements had been made, particularly of the ion composition and of the electron concentration in the gaps in the altitude profile.

THE STATES parties to this Protocol.

BEING PARTIES to the Convention for the establishment of a European Space Research Organisation, hereinafter referred to as ‘the Convention’ and ‘the Organisation’ respectively, signed at Paris on 14 June 1962.

HAVE AGREED as follows:

1. The expenditure of the Organisation during the first eight years after entry into force of the Convention shall not exceed three hundred and six million accounting units (at price levels ruling at the date of signature of this Protocol), provided that the Council, referred to in Article X of the Convention may, by a unanimous decision of all Member States taken on the occasion of a three-yearly determination of levels of resources under Article X4. (c) and (d) of the Convention, adjust this figure in the light of major scientific or technological developments.

2. The Organisation shall frame its programme within the limit of expenditure laid down in paragraph 1 of this Protocol.

May 1959

The Prime Minister: There are two problems to be considered in relation to a British contribution to space research; the nature and design of the instruments to be carried into space; and the means by which the containers for these instruments are launched.

With regard to the first, with the assistance of Fellows of the Royal Society and with the endorsement of the Advisory Council on Scientific Policy, a programme for the design and construction of instruments to be carried in earth satellites has been approved. Work will begin at once.

With regard to the second, there may well be scope for joint action with the United States with the Commonwealth or with other countries. We therefore plan to send to Washington a team of experts, including Professor H.S.W. Massey, to discuss possible Anglo-American co-operation; and we are also opening consultations with other Commonwealth countries.

Meanwhile, however, design studies are also being put in hand for the adaption of the British military rockets which are now under development. This will put us in a position, should we decide to do so, to make an all-British effort.

In Chapter 1 we described the way in which the Gassiot Committee of the Royal Society had been taking the lead in developing a research programme in atmospheric (including upper atmospheric) physics, through its three sub-committees, since 1941. It was natural that the Committee would take a close interest in the development going on in the USA in the use of rockets as vehicles to transport scientific instruments to high altitudes in the atmosphere. The chapter concluded with an account of the arrangements made by the Committee in conjunction with the US Rocket Research Panel to hold an international conference in Oxford in 1953 on rocket exploration of the upper atmosphere.

Prelude to the conference – an offer of rockets

The atmospheric scientists up to this time were quite unaware of the work proceeding in the Ministry of Supply on the design and development of rockets in connection with ballistic missile development, described in Chapter 2. It so happened, however, that the American Scientific liaison officer in London, F. Singer, had a wide interest and involvement in both the scientific and technological aspects of space exploration. He knew the key figures in the Ministry of Supply concerned with rocket development and suggested to the Chairman of the Gassiot Committee that invitations to attend the Conference be sent to a number of these people. This was done immediately and was much appreciated as it opened to them a window on the outside scientific world interested in using their products.

The background of technology which was available in Britain in the mid-1950s and which was relevant, indeed was essential, for the development of a significant UK space science programme in the succeeding years, was generated largely during and shortly after the Second World War. Rocket technology was at the heart of the matter, and this had a long history at least back to the Chinese of the 13th century. We have no technical details of the rocket weapons used by the Chinese although it is reasonable to assume that the basic ingredient was black gunpowder. Rockets were used intermittently in Europe either as weapons or in firework displays throughout the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, although there appears to have been no systematic development of the techniques used.

One of the first major engagements in which Europeans were subjected to rocket attacks occurred during the invasion of the Indian state of Mysore by British forces under Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington). In 1799 enemy rockets from the forces of Tipoo Sultan fell on the British encampment outside Seringapatam. Perhaps it was this first-hand experience which stimulated the British to take serious steps themselves in the development of rockets. At the Royal Laboratory of Woolwich Arsenal, Colonel (later Sir William) Congreve developed a 32 lb rocket with a range of 2000 to 3000 yards. Many thousands of these were produced, but without conspicuous military success. For instance, in the war of 1812 between Britain and the USA, Baltimore was bombarded by British rockets, and in the Peninsular war, Congreve rockets were given at least two trials by Wellington.

In Chapter 4 we described how British scientists were able to carry out experiments with equipment in satellites through bilateral co-operation with the United States in the Ariel programme. Although this provided opportunities which were immediately available and opened the way to further involvement in the US programme it did not fully satisfy the demand from the British space science community. The possibility of a national satellite launching programme involving the Blue Streak–Black Knight combination was still being actively canvassed in 1960 but, in addition, two other possibilities of co-operation were feasible, with the Commonwealth and with Western Europe. In a sense, Commonwealth co-operation was already involved through the use of Woomera in Australia for launching Skylark. This would also be true of a launching programme using Blue Streak because again the launching site would be at Woomera. The possibility of wider Commonwealth co-operation was actively canvassed during 1959 but although collaboration in space science did develop it was through the use of sounding rockets and did not add to satellite facilities. Its development will be described in the next chapter.

With Western Europe, on the other hand, very significant developments did take place which increased very considerably the opportunities for satellite experiments. Early in 1959 a suggestion was made that the North Atlantic Treaty Organization might organize a space research programme. There were obvious objections to this because of the military associations.

In this chapter and the following two chapters we attempt to convey an impression of the scale and effectiveness of research in the different branches of space science carried out by British scientists from the beginning. The sheer volume and variety of this work is immense and it would be both impracticable and pointless to attempt anything like a comprehensive account. Instead we shall concentrate attention on a number of areas in which the UK contribution has been especially impressive while at the same time saying something in much less detail about the remaining work. It is in any case somewhat invidious in describing scientific research to select work done by scientists from one country as all the work is truly international and we shall try to avoid any trace of chauvinism in our account.

In this chapter we concentrate on research work directed towards the study of the earth, including the solid earth and the lower, middle and outer neutral atmosphere. Some reference will also be made to lunar and planetary studies. Although much of the earth's environment is under solar control, it is convenient to deal with the work done in solar physics, including X-ray and ultra-violet solar astronomy, in Chapter 15, which is devoted to astronomy.

The Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Committee (SUPARCO), the British National Committee on Space Research (BNCSR), and the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) affirm their mutual interest in obtaining wind, temperature and other meteorological information beteen 50 and 150 kilometres by rocket soundings using the ‘grenade’ technique. These agencies agree to co-operate in a joint project of launching from Sonmiani Beach, Pakistan, during the International Quiet Sun Year.