Surprisingly, radio observations of the planets also turned up unexpected discoveries. While testing their transit radio array using the Crab Nebula as a reference source, two scientists at the Carnegie Institution Department of Terrestrial Magnetism noticed a strange variable signal that repeated each night. First suspecting that it was ignition noise from a nearby farm vehicle, they later realized that they were detecting radio emission from powerful electrical storms on Jupiter, which was at the same declination as the Crab Nebula as it passed through their fixed telescope beam. Mercury, long thought to have one side bathed in eternal daylight, was found to be rotating. Radio observations revealed the greenhouse effect on Venus, causing surface temperatures to reach over 600 degrees Celsius, and detected intense radiation belts around Jupiter, analogous to the Earth’s van Allen belts. The other giant planets were all found to be warmer than can be explained by solar heating alone. Precise pulsar timing measurements disclosed the first known extrasolar planetary system, a precursor to the thousands of extrasolar planets later discovered by ground and space based optical studies.

One important area where radio astronomers confirmed theoretical predictions was in tests of General Relativity. Radio interferometer measurements made during the 1970s were able to confirm Einstein’s prediction of the gravitational bending of light to an accuracy better than 1 percent, or an order of magnitude better than the controversial classical optical tests made during the time of a solar eclipse. In 1965, MIT Professor Irwin Shapiro suggested and subsequently confirmed a new fourth test of General Relativity resulting from the excess delay of the reflected radar signal from a planet as the signal passes close to the Sun. Radio observations have also found Einstein’s “gravitational lensing” by which a massive cluster of galaxies can form multiple radio images of a background galaxy or quasar. Observations of small periodic deviations in the time of arrival of pulsar pulses at the Arecibo Observatory led Princeton University graduate student Russell Hulse and his supervisor Joe Taylor to the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics for the first experimental evidence for the predicted existence of gravitational radiation.

The existence of a Cosmic Microwave Background was theoretically predicted by George Gamow and his associates, but played no role in the accidental discovery of the 2.7 degree cosmic microwave background radiation by Penzias and Wilson while they were testing a new type of satellite communications antenna at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel, NJ. An earlier measurement of the cosmic microwave background at Bell Labs went unnoticed except by Russian scientists, who misunderstood the paper to be reporting a negative result. Meanwhile, not far away, Robert Dicke and his colleagues at Princeton University were building a radiometer to verify Dicke’s prediction that it might be possible to detect the microwave remnants of the big-bang. But they were beaten by Penzias and Wilson’s serendipitous Nobel Prize winning discovery that led to the final demise of the steady-state theory. An even earlier measurement of optical absorption lines by interstellar cyanogen gave the first clues to the existence of a cosmic background radiation, but its meaning was not recognized until after the 1965 experimental discovery of the microwave background at Bell Labs.

While trying to discover additional quasars, Cambridge University graduate student, Jocelyn Bell noticed a peculiar looking signal that turned up around the same time each night. With determined curiosity and drive, Bell realized that the peculiar signal was pulsing with a 1.3 second repetition rate. The remarkable discovery of pulsars confirmed the theoretical prediction of the existence of neutron stars, but the prediction played no role in Bell’s serendipitous detection of the first pulsars. Meanwhile, at a remote Alaska radar DEW Line station, US Air Force officer Charles Schisler observed pulses even when his radar system was not transmitting. Following an off-duty investigation at the Fairbanks library, he realized that these pulses had a cosmic origin and were not coming from approaching Soviet missiles, but his independent discovery of pulsars remained classified for decades. Later, while searching for new pulsars in old data from the Parkes radio telescope, West Virginia University radio astronomer Duncan Lorimer discovered a new phenomenon, known as fast radio bursts, which were confused with a similar bursting type radiation from a microwave oven.

The introductory chapter places radio astronomy in the context of the broader astronomical environment. The transformational discoveries made by radio astronomy and the circumstances surrounding these discoveries are summarized with an emphasis on the role of serendipity and its impact on science.

In a talk given during the German occupation of the Netherlands, Henk van der Hulst discussed possible 21 cm radio emission from interstellar hydrogen atoms but pessimistically concluded that “the existence of the line remains speculative.” Nearly 20 years later, Harvard University PhD student Harold (Doc) Ewen surprisingly detected the 21 cm hydrogen line using a simple horn antenna sticking out the window of his laboratory and a novel frequency switching radiometer. van de Hulst had also calculated the possibility of detecting radio recombination lines from highly excited galactic hydrogen, but overestimated the effect of line broadening. Although he concluded that radio recombination lines are “unobservable,” they were subsequently detected in the USSR and the US. Observations of surprisingly strong radio emission from hydroxyl and water vapor were understood to be due to interstellar masers, which could have been detected much earlier if anyone had thought to look in the right place. Later discoveries of interstellar formaldehyde and carbon monoxide opened the door to a new and highly competitive field of astrophysics – molecular radio spectroscopy.

Radio astronomy is largely defined by the continued development of ever more powerful instruments with continually improving sensitivity and unanticipated and vastly better angular resolution. Particularly notable has been the construction of sophisticated radio interferometer and aperture synthesis systems that have up to 1,000 times better angular resolution than the best optical telescope, although radio wavelengths are 100,000 times longer than optical wavelengths. Many radio telescopes have not been used for what they were built for. The Arecibo 1,000 foot dish was designed for ionospheric radar experiments, not for radio astronomy. But theoretical analysis underestimated the strength of reflected radio echoes from the ionosphere, and so a very much cheaper dish would have sufficed for the ionosphere experiments. Nevertheless, the US Air Force, obsessed with anything connected with the ionosphere and incoming Russian missiles, paid for the Arecibo radio telescope to be built as designed. Later, it took a freak accident, an ambitious radio astronomer, and a powerful Senator to secure the funds to build the world’s largest fully steerable radio telescope in Green Bank, WV.

Karl Jansky’s illness led to his being assigned to a remote New Jersey Bell Telephone Labs site to investigate interference to transatlantic telephone circuits. In a series of personal letters written to his father, Jansky documented his two-year investigation leading to the discovery of radio emission from the center of the Milky Way. Pressure to work on defense-related projects and the growing tensions between Jansky and his supervisor Harold Friis led to a long-standing controversy about why Jansky did not continue his study of “star noise.” Although the astronomical community showed little interest in Jansky’s discovery, Grote Reber, a young engineer and avid radio amateur, built the world’s first radio telescope using his own private funds. After negative results because he was misled by the then prevailing theories of cosmic radio emission, Reber finally confirmed Jansky’s discovery and demonstrated that, unlike all previously known cosmic radiation, galactic radio emission was nonthermal. The work of Jansky and Reber set the stage for the later series of remarkable radio astronomy discoveries made possible by the wartime developments in radio and radar technology.

Quantum mechanics is inherently a probabilistic theory, so we present a brief review of some important concepts in probability theory. We distinguish between discrete probabilities, encountered in spin measurements, and continuous probabilities, encountered in position measurements.