InNature (Vol. Lxiv. p. 181, 1901) I directed attention to experiments by Heydweiller (Drude Ann. Vol. v. p. 394) from which he inferred that some chemical transformations, such as the solution of copper sulphate in water, were attended by real, though minute, changes of weight, and I pointed out certain difficulties involved in the acceptance of this statement. In connexion with another subject, it has lately occurred to me that such changes of weight would really be in opposition to the laws of thermodynamics, and I propose now briefly to sketch the argument from which this opposition appears.

It is known that by suitable arrangements the dissolution of salt may be effected reversibly at a given temperature. During the process, a certain amount of work is gained and a certain amount of heat at the given temperature has to be supplied. In the reverse process, of course, an equal amount of work has to be performed and an equal amount of heat is recovered. The temperature being given, these operations are not affected (it is assumed) by the height above the earth's surface at which they may be supposed to take place.

Conceive now that the temperature is uniform throughout and that the materials are initially at a low level and in one state (A). Let them be raised to a high level and there be transformed into the other state (B).

The question must often have presented itself as to how far the mathematical regularities dealt with by the crystallographer are realized in actual crystals. That the natural faces of crystals tend to be plane is fundamental; on the other hand, it is well known that in practice it is difficult to get any but very small faces to stand the roughest optical test. Explanations of the discrepancy may readily be suggested. The ideal conditions under which alone the tendency to flatness could fully assert itself may be scarcely attainable in practice.

The case of surfaces obtained by cleavage would seem to offer a better chance. To test this one naturally refers to mica. Mr Boys, I think, has somewhere remarked upon the fact that a piece of mica held in front of the object-glass of a telescope does not disturb the definition in the way that a piece of glass does, unless the latter be carefully worked. Mica thin enough to be convenient for such tests is of course too flexible for an examination of flatness. And it is easy to recognize that flexibility is not the only cause of deviation. There are also local irregularities, due possibly to particles of foreign matter or to strains which have exceeded the elastic limit.

In discussions respecting the character of the curve by which the vibrations of white light may be expressed, I have often felt the want of some ready, even if rough, method of compounding several prescribed simple harmonic motions. Any number of points on the resultant can of course always be calculated and laid down as ordinates; but the labour involved in this process is considerable. The arrangement about to be described was exhibited early in the year during lectures at the Royal Institution. As it is inexpensive to construct and easily visible to an audience, I have thought that such a description might be useful, accompanied with a few specimens of curves actually drawn with its aid.

A wooden batten, say 1 inch square and 5 feet long, is so mounted horizontally as to be capable of movement only along its length. For this purpose it suffices to connect two points near the two ends, each by means of two thin metallic wires, with four points symmetrically situated in the roof overhead. This mounting, involving four constraints only, allows also of a rotatory or rolling motion, which could be excluded, if necessary, by means of a fifth wire attached to a lateral arm. In practice, however, this provision was not used or needed. The movement of the batten along its length is controlled by a piece of spring-steel against which the pointed extremity of the batten is held by rubber bands.

Sensations of Right and Left from a revolving Magnet and Telephones.

Among the methods available for the production of a pure tone in a telephone circuit is that where the electromotive force has its origin in the revolution of a small magnet about an axis perpendicular to its length, the magnet acting inductively upon a neighbouring coil which forms part of the telephone circuit. It was by experiments made partly in this manner that I formerly determined the minimum of current necessary for audibility in the telephone. In connexion with recent work upon the origin of the lateral sensation in binaural audition I have again employed this method, and I now propose to give a brief account of the results, which were not available in time for incorporation in the paper just cited.

The object of the experimental arrangements is the separate presentation to the two ears of pure tones, practically in unison, in such a manner as to allow the effect of a variation in the phase-relationship to be appreciated. When the sounds proceed from tuning-forks vibrating independently, the phase-difference passes cyclically through all degrees, and if the beat be slow enough, there is good opportunity for observation. But it is not possible to stop anywhere, nor in some uses of the method to bring into juxtaposition phase-relationships which differ finitely. I thought that it would be of interest to observe under conditions which would allow any particular phaserelation to be maintained at pleasure, and to this the revolving magnet method naturally lends itself.

The well-known negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiment in which interference takes place between two rays, one travelling to and fro in the direction of the earth's motion, and the other to and fro in a perpendicular direction, is most naturally interpreted as proving that the æther in the laboratory shares the earth's motion. But other phenomena, especially stellar aberration, favour the opposite theory of a stationary æther. The difficulty thus arising has been met by the at first sight startling hypothesis of FitzGerald and Lorentz that solid bodies, such as the stone platform of Michelson's apparatus, alter their relative dimensions, when rotated, in such a way as to compensate the optical change that might naturally be looked for Larmor (Æther and Matter, Cambridge, 1900) has shown that a good case may be made out for this view.

It occurred to me that such a deformation of matter when moving through the æther might be accompanied by a sensible double refraction; and as the beginning of double refraction can be tested with extraordinary delicacy, I thought that even a small chance of arriving at a positive result justified a careful experiment. Whether the result were positive or negative, it might at least afford further guidance for speculation upon this important and delicate subject.

It will be remembered that M. Armand Gautier, as the result of very elaborate investigations, was led to the conclusion that air, even from the Atlantic, contains by volume nearly two parts in 10,000 of free hydrogen. The presence of so much hydrogen, nearly two-thirds of the carbonic acid which plays such an important part, is of interest in connexion with theories pointing to the escape of light constituents from the planetary atmospheres. Besides the free hydrogen, M. Gautier found in the air of woods and towns considerable quantities of hydrocarbons yielding CO2 when led over hot copper oxide.

Spectrosopio Evidence

In the Philosophical Magazine for Jan. 1901, I described some observations upon the spectrum of sparks taken in dried air at atmospheric pressure, which seemed “to leave a minimum of room for the hydrogen found by M. Gautier.” Subsequently (April 1901), these experiments were repeated with confirmatory results. The spectra, taken from platinum points, of pure country air and the same to which of hydrogen had been added were certainly and easily distinguished by the visibility of the C-line. An improvement was afterwards effected by the substitution of aluminium points for platinum. A strong preliminary heating reduced the C-line with a stream of pure dried air to the least yet seen, only just continuously visible, and contrasting strongly with the result of substituting the air to which the two parts in 10,000 of hydrogen had been added.

In the Proceedings, Vol. LXXII. p. 204, 1897, I have given particulars of weighings of nitrous oxide purified by two distinct methods. In the first procedure, solution in water was employed as a means of separating less soluble impurities, and the result was 3·6356 grammes. In the second method a process of fractional distillation was employed. Gas drawn from the liquid so prepared gave 3·6362. These numbers may be taken to represent the corrected weight of the gas which fills the globe at 0° C. and at the pressure of the gauge (at 15°), and they correspond to 2·6276 for oxygen.

Inasmuch as nitrous oxide is heavier than the impurities likely to be contained in it, the second number was the more probable. But as I thought that the first method should also have given a good result, I contented myself with the mean of the two methods, viz. 3·6359, from which I calculated that referred to air (free from H2O and CO2) as unity, the density of nitrous oxide was 1·52951.

The corresponding density found by M. Leduc is 1·5301, appreciably higher than mine; and M. Leduc argues that the gas weighed by me must still have contained one or two thousandths of nitrogen. According to him the weight of the gas contained in my globe should be 3·6374, or 1·5 milligrammes above the mean of the two methods.

In the Philosophical Magazine for Sept. 1902 Prof. Wood describes the extraordinary behaviour of a certain grating ruled upon speculum metal, which exhibits what may almost be called discontinuities in the distribution of the brightness of its spectra. Thus at a certain angle of incidence this grating will show one of the D-lines of sodium, and not the other. In fig. 1, p. 398, Prof. Wood gives ten diagrams fixing the positions (in terms of wave-length) of bright and dark bands in the spectrum at various angles of incidence ranging from 4° 12′ on the same side of the normal as the spectrum to 5° 45′ on the other side. In general there may be said to be two bands which approach one another as the angle of incidence diminishes, coincide when the incidence is normal, and open out again as the angle increases upon the other side. In the tenth diagram there is a third band whose behaviour is different and still more peculiar. In the movement of the two bands the rate of progress along the normal spectrum is the same for each. The above represents the cycle when the grating is in air. “If a piece of plane-parallel glass is cemented to the front of the grating with cedar-oil the cycle is quite different. In this case we have a pair of unsymmetrical shaded bands which move in the same direction as the angle of incidence is changed.”

An adequate calculation à priori of the tide of fortnightly period—that which depends upon the moon's motion in declination—would be of great interest as affording the means, by comparison with observation, of determining the extent to which the solid earth yields to the tide-generating force. On the assumption that the fortnightly tide over an absolutely rigid earth would be sensibly equal to its “equilibrium value,” Prof. G. Darwin has estimated that the actual rigidity must be at least as great as that of steel, in accordance with the earlier surmises of Lord Kelvin.

But is an “equilibrium theory” adequate? The known properties of a system vibrating about a configuration of thoroughly stable equilibrium would certainly suggest an affirmative answer, when it is considered that a fortnight is a long period in comparison with those of the more obvious free oscillations. It is to be remembered, however, that a tidally undisturbed sea is not in equilibrium, and that in virtue of the rotation of the earth the tides are really oscillations about a condition of steady motion. In Laplace's theory the rotation of the earth is taken fully into account, but the sea must be supposed to cover the entire globe, or at any rate to be bounded only by coasts running all round the globe along parallels of latitude.

On a former occasion I described a refractometer capable of dealing with rather small quantities (12 c.c.) of gas. The optical tubes, one of which would contain the material under investigation and the other air, were of brass, 20 cm. in length and 6 mm. in bore, and were traversed by two pencils of light from the same origin, subsequently brought to interference in the observing telescope. For this purpose the object-glass of the telescope was provided with two parallel slits opposite the axes of the tubes. The image of the original slit, formed in the focal plane, was examined through a highpower cylindrical lens, constituting the eye-piece of the telescope, and exhibited the familiar pattern of interference bands, the position of which shifts with changes in the densities of the gases occupying the tubes. With this apparatus, and using pressures not exceeding one atmosphere, it was possible to compare refractivities (µ − 1) with a relative accuracy of about one-thousandth part.

In recent conversation my son, the Hon. R. J. Strutt, raised the question as to the minimum quantity of gas upon which a determination of refractivity could be made, having in mind such rare gases as the radium emanation. Towards answering it I have made a few experiments dealing merely with the optical side of the question.

The problem of the collision of elastic solid bodies has been treated theoretically in two distinct cases. The first is that of the longitudinal impact of elongated bars, which for simplicity may be supposed to be of the same material and thickness. Saint-Venant showed that, except when the lengths are equal, a considerable fraction of the original energy takes the form of vibrations in the longer bar, so that the translational velocities after impact are less than those calculated by Newton for bodies which he called perfectly elastic. It will be understood that in Saint-Venant's theory the material is regarded as perfectly elastic, and that the total mechanical energy is conserved. The duration of the impact is equal to the period of the slowest vibration of the longer bar.

The experiments of Voigt, undertaken to test this theory, have led to the conclusion that it is inapplicable when the bars differ markedly in length. The observations agree much more nearly with the Newtonian law, in which all the energy remains translational. Further, Hamburger found that the duration of impact was much greater than according to theory, though it diminished somewhat as the relative velocity increased. I do not think that these discrepancies need cause surprise when we bear in mind that the theory presupposes a condition of affairs impossible to realise in practice. Thus it is assumed that the pressure during collision is uniform over the whole of the contiguous faces.

When Newton's rings are regarded through a prism (or grating) several interesting features present themselves, and are described in the “Opticks.” Not only are rings or arcs seen at unusual thicknesses, but a much enhanced number of them are visible, owing to approximate achromatism—at least on one side of the centre. The first part of the phenomenon was understood by Newton, and the explanation easily follows from the consideration of the case of a true wedge, viz. a plate bounded by plane and flat surfaces slightly inclined to one another. Without the prism, the systems of bands, each straight parallel and equidistant, corresponding to the various wave-lengths (λ) coincide at the black bar of zero order, formed where the thickness is zero at the line of intersection of the planes. Regarded through a prism of small angle whose refracting edge is parallel to the bands, the various systems no longer coincide at zero order, but by drawing back the prism, it will always be possible so to adjust the effective dispersive power as to bring the nth bars to coincidence for any two assigned colours, and therefore approximately for the entire spectrum.

“In this example the formation of visible rings at unusual thicknesses is easily understood; but it gives no explanation of the increased numbers observed by Newton.

The theory of the infinitesimal free vibrations of a system, depending on any number of independent coordinates, about a position of stable equilibrium has long been familiar. In my book on the Theory of Sound (2nd ed. Vol. II. p. 480) I have shown how to continue the approximation when the motion can no longer be regarded as extremely small, and the following conclusions were arrived at:—

(a) The solution obtained by this process is periodic, and the frequency is an even function of the amplitude (H1) of the principal term (H1 cos nt).

(b) The Fourier series expressive of each coordinate contains cosines only, without sines, of the multiples of nt. Thus the whole system comes to rest at the same moment of time, e.g. t = 0, and then retraces its course.

(c) The coefficient of cos rnt in the series for any coordinate is of the rth order (at least) in the amplitude (H1) of the principal term. For example, the series of the third approximation, in which higher powers of H13 than are neglected, stop at cos 3nt.

(d) There are as many types of solution as degrees of freedom; but, it need hardly be said, the various solutions are not superposable.

At various times during the past twenty years I have turned my attention to the theory of distillation, and have made experiments upon a question, as to which information seemed to be almost entirely lacking, viz., the relation between the strengths of liquid and vapour which are in equilibrium with one another when a binary mixture is subjected to distillation. In order to be intelligible I must set forth a little in detail some matters which are now fairly well known and understood, although they were not so at the time when my notes were written.

Distillation of a Pure Liquid

The temperature of the saturated vapour just over the liquid depends upon the pressure. If the end of the condenser-tube, e.g., of the Liebig type, be open, the pressure is of necessity nearly atmospheric. Suppose that in this tube a piston, moving freely, separates pure vapour from pure air. Then the whole wall of the condenser on the vapour side is almost at boiling-point. If we imagine the piston removed, the air and vapour may mix, and it is now the total pressure which is atmospheric. Wherever the temperature is below boiling there must be admixture of air sufficient to bring up the pressure.

Two or more Liquids which press independently

This is the case of liquids like water and bisulphide of carbon whose vapour-pressures are simply added. So long as the number of ingredients remains unchanged, the composition of the vapour rising from the boiling mixture is a function of the temperature (or total pressure) only.