Medium-sized to tall (to 40 m), deciduous trees, with distinctive multi-tiered crown shapes and straight or crooked trunks, bearing abundant fan-like sprays of summer bright-green, autumn bright-yellow, then winter-deciduous foliage. Their wider (and much later seasonally flushing) leaves arise along branchlets in a single plane and more golden autumn colours distinguish Pseudolarix from Larix.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy is the most severe form of muscular dystrophy in children, as well as the most common. Duchenne muscular dystrophy and its milder phenotype, Becker muscular dystrophy, are called dystrophinopathies as they are caused by mutations in the gene DMD, which encodes for the protein dystrophin. The DMD gene is the largest yet identified gene in humans and is located on the short arm of the X chromosome. Dystrophin serves as a vital cytoplasmic protein that connects muscle fiber cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix. The phenotype of the dystrophinopathy depends upon the amount of residual dystrophin protein. In the most severe phenotype, which is Duchenne muscular dystrophy, the dystrophin is either completely absent or very minimal in amount.

The definition of concussion has changed many times over the last 50 years; however, in general, concussion is a subset of mild traumatic brain injury and represents a traumatically induced transient disturbance in neuronal function that cannot be otherwise explained. Though the exact pathophysiology of concussion is unknown, it is thought that during a concussion a force is delivered to the brain by any of multiple modalities (e.g., physical force such as head impact or pressure force such as blast injury) that creates a stretch of the neurons, which in turn disrupts neuronal functions and communication. This disruption also results in some extent of direct structural cell injury and impairs their ability to repair themselves, making them more vulnerable to a second and more harmful later concussion. Though most concussions occur due to a physical force impacting the head and translation of that force to the brain, blast concussions are common in those that serve in the military, and it is generally thought to occur when a nearby explosion changes the intra and extracranial pressures and causes an acceleration force to the head and brain, resulting in neuronal damage.

The central question of this chapter is how a region like Ottoman Kurdistan comes to explode in violence. I suggest that violence manifests in a cumulative way. To make this argument, I adopt an expanded conception of violence that moves beyond physical encounters or bloodshed between groups to also incorporate smaller acts of property violation, such as animal theft, as well as violence on a larger canvas, such as through state-building strategies and environmental change. Thus, I argue that to understand the roots of the Armenian massacres of 1894–96 requires understanding decades of environmental degradation and the various forms of violence produced.

Also called Devic’s disease, after French neurologist Eugene Devic who first discovered and described the disease in 1894, neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is a highly aggressive spectrum of neuroinflammatory disease characterized by recurrent attacks of myelitis and optic neuritis. Occurring more frequently in women than in men (3:1) and usually in adulthood, the optic neuritis of NMO can be bilateral or unilateral, and the myelitis associated with NMO is typically longitudinally extensive, stretching to at least three vertebral segments of the spinal cord continuously. Though the majority of neural injury of NMO is associated with the inflammation of the spinal cord and optic nerves, recent studies have shown that patients with NMO also often have involvement of the brain including the area postrema, which causes intractable nausea and vomiting, and the hypothalamus, which causes endocrinopathies. Also, lesions of the cerebral hemispheres can be seen, producing a host of possible symptoms from focal neurological deficits to seizures, though they can also be asymptomatic.

Low-growing spreading shrubs, the branches and branchlets spreading, with cupressoid acicular-tipped foliage, the seed-bearing organs of which are few-scaled cones each bearing one large blackish seed.

A common epilepsy syndrome, juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) first presents at ages 8–26 years, though typically during teenage years, and accounts for ~10% of all cases of epilepsy. Approximately 30% of those with JME have a familial history of epilepsy.

Tall, long-lived forest trees with rough-barked trunks, mostly developing a broad-crowned habit with age, with widely spreading flattened branch systems, giving mature trees a particularly stately and majestic habit with age. They are distinguished from Picea by the presence of short shoots with clustered leaves, and female cones which are erect and never pendulous at maturity.

Both Collingwood and Wittgenstein link philosophy with poetry. Collinwood thought that “good philosophy and good poetry are not two different kinds of writing, but one,” while Wittgenstein wrote that “philosophy ought to be written only as a poetic composition.” In this chapter, I present what these two philosophers say about the relation between philosophy and poetry and argue that, their differences notwithstanding, both want philosophers to express their times, just like poets, and lead their audience to the future in a process of self-knowledge and reform. Finally, I comment on Richard Rorty’s remarks on the relation between philosophy and poetry. I argue that, unlike Collingwood and Wittgenstein, Rorty wants poetry to replace, and perhaps even eliminate, philosophy, but agrees with them and Nietzsche that poets ought to act as prophets, not in the sense of foretellers, but in the sense of inspiring leaders and groundbreakers.

Medium-sized to tall evergreen trees, with a conical, tapering crown, the foliage predominantly of small-sized scale leaves cladding flattened fern-like foliar sprays, often freely bearing crops of small, spherical cones, the foliage with only a faint, never acrid smell when crushed, sometimes described as slightly grass- or parsley-like.

Tall to sometimes massive evergreen trees with a typically conical, tapering crown when young, becoming billowing and multi-domed with age, with numerous semi-rigid glossy-surfaced awl-shaped leaves radiating all around the shoots. The male cones when present are small and numerous per shoot, each nearly sessile in the axil of a leaf near the growing tip of a branchlet. The female cones are globular, on the tips of short spur branchlets lateral to growing branchlet tips. Each cone bract–scale unit has numerous forward-pointing awns.

Africa’s unique vulnerability to climate change has become entrenched as a central theme in international climate politics and has precipitated a transformation in climate policy on the continent from relative disorganisation to effective and unified cooperation in the span of barely 30 years. In the same period, Africa has also emerged as one of the fastest growing and most promising regions in the world economy. In light of these developments, and spurred by an international discourse of ‘energy transition’, a new wave of European foreign direct investment headlined by renewable energy has crested – with Africa in its sights. This contribution will explore the efficacy of such investments as a vehicle for ‘exporting’ European climate policy, and the extent to which these policy aims are compatible with similarly massive investments into Africa from the People’s Republic of China (PRC). By interrogating the focus of energy investments from Europe and the PRC, both in terms of stated aims and actual outcomes, it will posit that the success of Africa’s energy transition will depend in large part on the PRC’s sincerity about its domestic and international climate ambition.

Links between the Arctic and the Earth’s climate system generate several paradoxes. Despite the low level of anthropogenic emissions of GHGs from the Arctic, it plays a critical role in the dynamics of the Earth’s climate system. The principal drivers of climate change are non-Arctic, but climate change impacts show up sooner and more dramatically in the Arctic, making it ground zero in efforts to address the challenge of climate adaptation. Ironically, these changes have also increased the accessibility of the massive reserves of hydrocarbons located in the circumpolar north. The Arctic Council has sought to address these concerns by monitoring the course of climate change in the Arctic and bringing together representatives of major GHG emitters to consider options for addressing climate change, but the council is limited in terms of authority and resources; Russia’s war in Ukraine has disrupted its activities. The paradoxical links arising in this case are characteristic of complex systems more generally and highlight the importance of developing the ability to respond agilely when needs and opportunities to deal effectively with rapidly changing conditions arise.

A variant of GBS, acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN) is estimated to comprise ~5–10% of GBS cases. AMAN and its similar subtype acute motor and sensory neuropathy (AMSAN) cause primary axonal destruction with little to no demyelination. This is unlike the most popular type of GBS, AIDP, in which primary destruction to the peripheral nerve is demyelination. The pathogenesis is thought to be like that of AIDP with a postinfectious humoral antibody-mediated injury to the peripheral nerves.

Absence epilepsy is a common form of generalized epilepsy seen in children. Typical seizures are characterized by sudden episodes of loss of responsiveness with staring and behavioral arrest lasting for 10–30 seconds. Such seizures are referred to as dialeptic seizures.

First described by Danish ophthalmologist Eric Godtfredsen in 1946, Godtfredsen syndrome (GS) is a rare clinical syndrome characterized by a combination of abducens nerve and hypoglossal nerve palsies.