Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are well known for biomedical applications. The particle size, morphology, surface area, and functionalization are the key parameters that affect their bioactivity properties. Inline to this, the superparamagnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles were prepared via chemical coprecipitation method with an average particle size of 6 ± 3 nm. The particles were surface-functionalized with chitosan and in-house prepared reduced graphene oxide (rGO) to obtain chitosan-coated Fe3O4 nanoparticles (C-Fe3O4) and rGO-Fe3O4 nanocomposites (G-Fe3O4), respectively. Upon functionalization, the physicochemical properties of the materials were characterized thoroughly using X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, vibrating sample magnetometer, Raman Spectroscopy, and thermal gravimetric analysis. Furthermore, they have subjected to cytotoxicity assay, agar two-fold broth dilution test, and disc diffusion assay experiments for the determination of cytotoxicity and antibacterial activities. The effect of surface functionalization on their bioactivity was investigated thoroughly. The surface functionalization with chitosan and rGO has enhanced the bioactivity of the Fe3O4 nanoparticles.

Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is an economically important by-product obtained from the cashew nut Anacardium occidentale L. The liquid has been found to be versatile with a wide range of uses, including as a raw material in the polymer industry, in the development of drugs (antioxidants) and in pest control. One important chemical component of CNSL known for its bioactivity is cardanol. We isolated (8Z,11Z)-3-(8,11,14-pentadecatrienyl)phenol, a cardanol from CNSL, and determined its insecticidal and progeny growth and development inhibition activities against Tribolium castaneum Hebst. We used a bioassay-guided approach for the isolation. Exposure to cardanol produced 80% mortality of adult T. castaneum in the insecticidal bioassay. In the progeny growth and development inhibition bioassay, 46.7% of larvae were killed, and only 20.7% of adults emerged without deformities after the cardanol treatment. The amount of isolated cardanol from the 1 g equivalent/ml extracted CNSL was found to be 36.55 mg with LC50 value of 47.88 mg/ml and 13.28 mg/ml against adult T. castaneum and its larvae, respectively. We conclude that cardanol can potentially be useful in managing stored product insect pests, especially T. castaneum, but with the prerequisite that one should take much care when handling and when applying the compound.

The response of ‘C-20’ navy bean and ‘Frankenmuth’ soft white winter wheat grown in rotation to clomazone, imazethapyr, bentazon, and acifluorfen was examined. Clomazone at 560 and 430 g ai ha−1 plus 800 g ai ha−1 pendimethalin and 2000 g ai ha−1 chloramben visibly injured navy bean in 1 of 2 yr. However, navy bean seed moisture at harvest and yield was not reduced compared to the weed-free control. PPI and PRE treatments of 70 g ai ha−1 imazethapyr did not injure navy bean or reduce yield. Imazethapyr applied POST at 70 g ha−1 plus nonionic surfactant visibly injured navy bean. The addition of urea ammonium nitrate to imazethapyr enhanced visible injury and seed moisture compared to nonionic surfactant alone in 1 of 2 yr. However, seed yield was not reduced. Seed moisture at harvest was greater following treatment with 430 g ai ha−1 acifluorfen plus nonionic surfactant or urea ammonium nitrate and 140 and 280 g ha−1 acifluorfen plus 840 g ai ha−1 bentazon in 1 of 2 yr compared to the weed-free control, but yield was not reduced. Wheat yield was reduced in 2 of 2 and 1 of 2 yr by 560 g ha−1 and 430 g ha−1 clomazone, respectively, plus pendimethalin plus chloramben compared to the weed-free control. Wheat yield was not reduced by imazethapyr, bentazon, or acifluorfen.

Field studies on a sandy loam soil determined the influence of application method and rate and subsequent tillage on corn response to imazaquin and imazethapyr residues remaining in the soil. Imazaquin was applied preplant incorporated (PPI) and preemergence (PRE) at 70, 140, and 280 g ai/ha and postemergence (POST) at 70 and 140 g/ha. Imazethapyr was applied PPI and PRE at 70, 105, and 140 g ai/ha and POST at 70 and 105 g/ha. Subsequent tillage included fall moldboard plowing followed by spring field cultivation, fall chisel plowing followed by spring field cultivation, and no tillage. Herbicide dissipation was determined by analyzing soil cores taken in the spring at the time of corn planting and by measuring corn height and grain yield. Imidazolinone residues were detected in only 1 of 2 yr. Imazaquin was detected more frequently than imazethapyr. Imazaquin concentrations in the upper 10 cm of soil 11 mo after a PPI application of 280 g/ha were 5, 6, and 7 ng/g of soil in moldboard plow, chisel, and no-tillage systems, respectively. Imazaquin (5 ng/g) was also detected in the 10–18-cm soil depth in the moldboard plow system. Corn height and grain yield were not reduced from imazaquin or imazethapyr, regardless of application method or rate in any tillage system.

Herbicides can persist in the soil and injure sensitive crops planted in the years following herbicide application. The response of sugarbeet to clomazone, imazaquin, imazethapyr, and chlorimuron residues in soil was examined. Clomazone at 1.1 or 2.2 kg ai ha-1 did not reduce yield of sugarbeet planted 1 or 2 yr after application. Imazaquin at 0.07 to 0.28 kg ai ha-1, and imazethapyr at 0.09 to 0.14 kg ai ha-1, can reduce yield of sugarbeet planted 1 yr after application. Imazaquin at 0.07 to 0.14 kg ha-1 caused 28 to 47% sugarbeet injury and imazethapyr at 0.09 kg ha-1 caused 54% injury 2 yr after application in soybean. A 25% yield loss occurred from the imazethapyr treatment. Sugarbeet injury 2 yr after application was greatest when sugarbeet also was planted the year following soybean. Chlorimuron at 0.02 to 0.08 kg ai ha-1 plus linuron at 0.4 to 0.9 kg ai ha-1 reduced yield of sugarbeet planted 1 yr after application when compared with linuron alone, regardless of soil pH. Visible sugarbeet injury of 38 to 66% was still evident from chlorimuron plus linuron treatments 2 yr after application. Sugarbeet should not be planted less than 25 mo following imazaquin, imazethapyr, or chlorimuron application.

The availability and persistence of imazaquin, imazethapyr, and clomazone were studied in a Cisne silt loam (1.3% organic matter) and a Drummer silty clay loam (5.8% organic matter). Availability of all three herbicides to bioassay species was greater in the Cisne soil than in the Drummer soil. Corn root growth was more sensitive to imazaquin and imazethapyr than corn shoot growth. Shoot and root growth of wheat was inhbited by similar clomazone concentrations. In field experiments conducted in 1984, 1985, and 1986, all three herbicides were more persistent in the Drummer silty clay loam than in the Cisne silt loam. Clomazone and imazethapyr were detected by liquid or gas chromatographic analysis in the Drummer soil 3 yr following application. Crop injury occurred 5 months after application of imazaquin and clomazone to the Drummer soil. In the Cisne soil, only imazethapyr caused crop injury 5 months after application. Herbicide residues found below 7.5 cm were greater in the Drummer soil than in the Cisne soil.

The effect of wheat straw incorporation on imazaquin concentration and biological activity in soil solution was determined as a function of herbicide rate and time of incubation. Etowah silt loam, amended with wheat straw (2 g/kg) or unamended, received imazaquin (0, 31, 62, or 124 μg ai/kg oven-dry soil). Soils incubated at 25 C were subsampled 0, 12, 24, 48, and 96 h after treatment and soil solutions were analyzed for imazaquin, pH, and electrical conductivity. Wheat straw amendment, imazaquin rate, and time of incubation influenced the concentration of imazaquin in the soil solution. Imazaquin concentration in soil solution exhibited gradual linear declines with time. Relative length of sunflower radicles declined with increased imazaquin rate. Regression of relative radicle length on activity of imazaquin anion in soil solution indicated differential response in the presence of wheat straw-amended versus unamended soil.

Excessive persistence of imazethapyr has been responsible for injury to corn grown after soybean. Factors implicated in corn injury reported from certain parts of the main corn-producing region in South Africa were: leaching of herbicide to deep soil layers during the season of application, followed in the next season by capillary movement to the root zone of corn, and increased bioactivity of herbicide residues following liming of fields. Bioassays were employed to determine to what extent imazethapyr leached in a soil that typically contains less than 10% total clay and 0.1% organic C in the 0- to 300-mm zone and to assess the role of pH and liming in the bioactivity of the herbicide. Undisturbed soil columns were collected in polyvinyl chloride pipe for the leaching experiment. In the greenhouse, the equivalent of 40 g ai/ha imazethapyr was applied on the column surface, followed by leaching with simulated rain of 25 or 50 mm. Leaf area measurements of the test species rapeseed showed that the herbicide was readily leached to at least 30 cm at both water regimes and that it subsequently moved upward in the soil, with evaporation as the driving force. In the other bioassay, the soil was ameliorated with different amounts of Ca(OH)2 or CaCO3 to adjust pH levels to between 5.7 and 7.1 These soil samples were each treated with imazethapyr at rates equivalent to 1.8, 3.75, 7.5, 15, and 30 g ai/ha. The growth response of the test species indicated that where Ca(OH)2 was applied, the bioactivity of imazethapyr in most instances was significantly greater than where CaCO3 was used. At all the imazethapyr rates, the activity of the herbicide increased significantly with an increase in pH from 5.6 to 6.5 where Ca(OH)2 was used, but with CaCO3, activity was significant only at 15 and 30 g ai/ha. Changes in imazethapyr adsorption and in the organic matter in the soil were not monitored, but it is suggested that the increase in herbicide activity caused by Ca(OH)2 may be due to the degradation of organic matter in the soil or to desorption of the herbicide, which would render the herbicide more available for uptake. These effects, if they do occur, are likely to be of significance for herbicide adsorption only in soil with very low organic matter content. Results indicate that imazethapyr could leach easily in coarse-textured soils low in clay and organic matter content and that the type of lime used on those soils may influence the bioactivity of the herbicide.

Saflufenacil, a pyrimidinedione herbicide, is used for contact and residual broadleaf weed control in various crops. Bioactivity of saflufenacil in soil was tested in greenhouse and laboratory studies on 29 soils representing a wide range of soil properties and geographic areas across the United States. A greenhouse bioassay method was developed using various concentrations of saflufenacil applied PPI to each soil. Whole canola plants were harvested 14 d after treatment, and fresh and dry weights were recorded. Nonlinear regression analysis was used to determine the effective saflufenacil doses for 50% (ED50,), 80% (ED80), and 90% (ED90) inhibition of total plant fresh weight. Bioactivity of saflufenacil in soil was strongly correlated to soil organic (R = 0.85) and humic matter (R = 0.81), and less correlated to cation exchange capacity (R = 0.49) and sand content (R = −0.32). Stepwise regression analysis indicated that organic matter was the major soil constituent controlling bioactivity in soil and could be used to predict the bioactivity of saflufenacil. Saflufenacil phytotoxicity was found to be dependent on soil property; therefore, efficacy and crop tolerance from PRE and PPI applications may vary based on soil organic matter content and texture classification.

Effects of soil pH and cation exchange capacity (CEC) on sunflower tolerance to sulfentrazone were investigated in a greenhouse study. Variables were soil pH (7.0, 7.3, 7.5, and 7.8), soil CEC (8.2, 13.7, 18.4, and 23.3 cmol/kg), and sulfentrazone rate (0, 105, 158, and 184 g ai/ha). Sulfentrazone-induced leaf chlorosis was affected by soil pH at 12 d after planting (DAP), but plants recovered, and earlier differences were not visible 9 d later. At 12 DAP, leaf chlorosis was 3 or 4% more severe in soils with pH 7.3 or higher compared with soils with pH 7.0 when averaged over both sulfentrazone rate and soil CEC. Leaf chlorosis resulting from sulfentrazone rates of 105, 158, and 184 g/ha was 17, 25, and 35% less at 23 cmol/kg than at 8.2 cmol/kg, respectively. Differences in chlorosis among sulfentrazone rates were greatest in soil with low CEC and lessened as soil CEC increased. Plants regained normal color over time, and newly emerging leaves were not affected. However, plant dry weights were reduced when sulfentrazone rate was ≥158 g/ha. Averaged over sulfentrazone rate and soil pH, sunflower dry weights were less when soil CEC was 8.2 compared with a CEC of 13.7 cmol/kg or higher, indicating a greater response at low CEC. Sunflower plant dry matter was not different in sulfentrazone-treated soil with a CEC above 13.7 cmol/kg. At the ranges tested, soil CEC had a considerably greater effect than did pH on sunflower tolerance to sulfentrazone.

In vitro techniques are essential in elucidating biochemical mechanisms and for screening a wide range of possible bioactive candidates. The number of papers published reporting in vitro bioavailability and bioactivity of flavonoids and flavonoid-rich plant extracts is numerous and still increasing. However, even with the present knowledge on the bioavailability and metabolism of flavonoids after oral ingestion, certain inaccuracies still persist in the literature, such as the use of plant extracts to study bioactivity towards vascular cells. There is therefore a need to revisit, even question, these approaches in terms of their biological relevance. In this review, the bioavailability of flavonoid glycosides, the use of cell models for intestinal absorption and the use of flavonoid aglycones and flavonoid-rich plant extracts in in vitro bioactivity studies will be discussed. Here, we focus on the limitations of current in vitro systems and revisit the validity of some in vitro approaches, and not on the detailed mechanism of flavonoid absorption and bioactivity. Based on the results in the review, there is an apparent need for stricter guidelines on publishing data on in vitro data relating to the bioavailability and bioactivity of flavonoids and flavonoid-rich plant extracts.

Colostrum consists of a number of biologically active proteins and peptides that influence physiological function and development of a neonate. The present study investigated the biological activity of peptides released from first day bovine colostrum through in vitro and in vivo enzymatic digestion. This was assessed for proliferative activity using a human intestinal epithelial cell line, T84. Digestion of the protein fraction of bovine colostrum in vitro was conducted with the enzymes pepsin, chymosin and trypsin. Pepsin and chymosin digests yielded protein fractions with proliferative activity similar to that observed with undigested colostrum and the positive control foetal calf serum (FCS). In contrast trypsin digestion significantly (P<0·05) decreased colostral proliferative activity when co-cultured with cells when compared with undigested colostrum. The proliferative activity of undigested colostrum protein and abomasal whey protein digesta significantly increased (P<0·05) epithelial cell proliferation in comparison to a synthetic peptide mix. Bovine colostrum protein digested in vivo was collected from different regions of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in newborn calves fed either once (n=3 calves) or three times at 12-h intervals (n=3 calves). Digesta collected from the distal duodenum, jejunum and colon of calves fed once, significantly (P<0·05) stimulated cell proliferation in comparison with comparable samples collected from calves fed multiple times. These peptide enriched fractions are likely to yield candidate peptides with potential application for gastrointestinal repair in mammalian species.

Brewers’ spent grain (BSG) is a low-value co-product of the brewing industry produced in large quantities annually. This paper reviews the existing evidence regarding the phenolic component of BSG, focusing on composition, extraction and biofunctions such as antioxidant, anti-atherogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic activities. Furthermore, the incorporation of BSG in foodstuffs will be discussed, including the use of BSG as an animal feed supplement and the potential of BSG to be incorporated into foods for human consumption. BSG contains hydroxycinnamic acids including ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid and caffeic acid; which have shown bioactivity in the pure form (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenic and anti-cancer). Phenolic extracts from BSG have also shown antioxidant potential, by protecting against oxidant-induced DNA damage, possibly by Fe chelation. Studies show that BSG has many benefits when used as a supplement in animal feed, such as increasing milk yield, milkfat content and in providing essential dietary amino acids. The incorporation of BSG in human foods such as cookies and ready-to-eat snacks has resulted in increased protein and fibre contents of the products, where the changes in organoleptic properties are controllable. It can be concluded that the phenolic component of BSG has potential bioactive effects, which are worth pursuing given that the inclusion of BSG into human foodstuffs is viable and beneficial.

The life science industries have a strong interest in screening for novel bioactives in complex mixtures like milk and dairy products. Food bioactives are not only important for public health in general, but also have potential therapeutic applications for the treatment of a number of diseases. To identify these novel bioactives, establishment of robust screening assays is essential. The use of in vitro cell-based models for screening and testing have the advantage that several concentrations of mixtures or specific compounds can be assayed at the same time in cells from specific tissues. Primary cell cultures from target organs or established cell lines can be used to identify the most sensitive cells. In addition, a large number of transfected cell lines with very specific sensitivities have been developed. Different endpoints inherent to basal or more sophisticated cellular functions can be investigated, such as cell viability, apoptosis, migration, intracellular signalling, regulation of gene expression, morphology and metabolic alterations. The gastrointestinal tract is an obvious target for bioactive molecules delivered through milk and dairy products, because it lies at the interface between dietary components in the lumen and the internal processes of the host. Identification of bioactive factors that affects proliferation or migration of epithelial cells may have potential applications in promoting gastrointestinal health in both humans and animals. The mammary gland is another target organ of considerable interest since it has been estimated that up to 50% of all newly diagnosed breast cancers may be related to dietary factors. A large number of gastrointestinal and mammary epithelial cell lines are commercially available, but in order to study some cellular functions, primary cultures of freshly isolated cells are often preferred, as established cell lines do not always express specialised properties in culture.

There are insufficient data to provide conclusive evidence on the health effects of most flavonoid subclasses. Future research of polyphenol bioactivity requires a more complete understanding of their intake, bioavailability and metabolism. The following summarises the limitations of polyphenol research as described across various reviews throughout the literature and presents the key requirements for future research. These include establishing the effects of processing, bioavailability and metabolism, developing physiologically appropriate in vitro models, standard methods of analysis and appropriate clinical biomarkers. The future of flavonoid research will undoubtedly depend upon the resolve of these issues, and although the field has shown continuous progress for many years, progress will likely slow if these challenges are not met.

The combination of ultrasound and heat (thermoultrasound) is an emerging food preservation technique that retains higher quantities of bioactive components compared with current thermal pasteurization practice, but has not yet been assessed for pasteurizing human milk. Artificially contaminated human milk samples were treated with ultrasound (20 kHz, 150 watts) with and without heating. The retention of four human milk proteins was quantified by biochemical assay and laser scattering particle sizing was used to determine the extent of homogenization. While ultrasonic treatment was effective at inactivating Escherichia coli (D4 °C=5·94 min), Staphylococcus epidermidis exhibited resistance (D4 °C=16·01 min). Thermoultrasonic treatment was considerably more effective (Esch. coli D45 °C=1·74 min, D50 °C=0·89 min; Staph. epidermidis D45 °C=2·08 min, D50 °C=0·94 minutes) with a predicted retention (2·8 min treatment, 50°C) of secretory IgA lysozyme, lactoferrin and bile salt stimulated lipase of 91, 80, 77, and 45%, respectively. Homogenization of the milk samples occurred after 5 min and 2 min of ultrasonic and thermoultrasonic treatment, respectively. Thermoultrasonic treatment is an effective method for pasteurizing donor human milk and retaining a greater proportion of bioactive components compared with current practices. However, further studies are required to assess the practicality of applying this technique routinely to donor human milk.

Information on the chemical ecology and bioactivity of chemical compounds present in the sea cucumber Psolus patagonicus is provided through an interdisciplinary approach. The specimens studied were collected from two different and very distant sampling localities: Bridges Islands (Beagle Channel, Ushuaia, 54° 48′57″ S 66° 25′00″ W) at depths of 4 to 10 m by SCUBA diving, and from the scallop beds of Zigochlamys patagonica (39° 27′10″ S 55° 56′76″ W), at depths of 110 m and 115 m (43° 47′84″ S 59° 56′80″ W) by means of non-selective dredge in the South Atlantic Ocean.The secondary metabolites were isolated from complete adults by a combination of chromatographic methods and purified by high-performance liquid chromatography. They were characterized as triterpene glycosides through extensive spectroscopic analyses (nuclear magnetic resonance and fast atom bombardment mass spectroscopy) and chemical methods. A purified fraction containing Patagonicoside A as the main triterpene showed a high level of mortality against the brine shrimp Artemia salina and revealed different antifungal activity of Patagonicoside A and its desulphated glycoside (ds-Patagonicoside A) against the fungi Cladosporium fulvum, Fusarium oxysporum and Monilia sp., compared with a potent commercial antifungal product.

Livestock and aquaculture production is under political and social pressure, especially in the European Union (EU), to decrease pollution and environmental damage arising due to animal agriculture. The EU has banned the use of antibiotics and other chemicals, which have been shown to be effective in promoting growth and reducing environment pollutants because of the risk caused to humans by chemical residues in food and by antibiotic resistance being passed on to human pathogens. As a result of this, scientists have intensified efforts in exploiting plants, plant extracts or natural plant compounds as potential natural alternatives for enhancing the livestock productivity. This paper discusses work on the effects of various phytochemicals and plant secondary metabolites in ruminant and fish species. The focus is on (i) plants such as Ananas comosus (pine apple), Momordica charantia (bitter gourd) and Azadirachta indica (neem) containing anthelmintic compounds and for their use for controlling internal parasites; (ii) plants containing polyphenols and their applications for protecting proteins from degradation in the rumen, increasing efficiency of microbial protein synthesis in rumen and decreasing methane emission; for using as antioxidants, antibacterial and antihelmintic agents; and for changing meat colour and for increasing n-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid in meat; (iii) saponin-rich plants such as quillaja, yucca and Sapindus saponaria for increasing the efficiency of rumen fermentation, decreasing methane emission and enhancing growth; for producing desired nutritional attributes such as lowering of cholesterol in monogastric animals; for increasing growth of fish (common carp and Nile tilapia) and for changing male to female ratio in tilapia; and for use as molluscicidal agents; (iv) Moringa oleifera leaves as a source of plant growth factor(s), antioxidants, beta-carotene, vitamin C, and various glucosinolates and their degraded products for possible use as antibacterial, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic and antipest agents; (v) Jatropha curcas toxic variety with high levels of various phytochemicals such as trypsin inhibitor, lectin, phytate and phorbol esters in seeds limiting the use of seed meal in fish and livestock diets; and the use of phorbol esters as bio-pesticidal agent; and (vi) lesser-known legumes such as Entada phaseoloides seeds containing high levels of trypsin inhibitor and saponins, Sesbania aculeate seeds rich in non-starch polysaccharides and Mucuna pruriens var. utilis seeds rich in l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine and their potential as fish feed; Cassia fistula seeds as a source of antioxidants; and the use of Canavalia ensiformis, C. gladiata and C. virosa seeds containing high levels of trypsin inhinitor, lectins and canavanine. The paper also presents some challenges and future areas of work in this field.

Lichen-forming fungi are unique organisms, producing biologically active metabolites with a great variety of effects, including antibiotic, antimycobacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, antiproliferative and cytotoxic activities. However, only very limited numbers of lichen substances have been screened for their biological activities and their therapeutic potential in medicine. This is certainly due to the difficulties encountered in identification of the species, collection of bulk quantities, and the isolation of pure substances for structure determination and testing activity. Recently, possibilities for bypassing some of these former difficulties have arisen by the introduction of new techniques. This includes axenic cultivation for production of the genuine compounds or new ones, extraction of focused compounds, or synthesis of natural products or their derivatives for testing. Utilizing these new opportunities, the discovery of novel active metabolites, which could serve as lead compounds, is significantly facilitated. At the same time, the evolution of secondary metabolite patterns is studied using phylogenetic approaches. Yet, the genetic background of the complex chemical patterns is poorly understood. The scattered occurrence of some compounds suggests that their production evolved either in parallel or that ancient biosynthetic pathways are abandoned in many lineages. At least, studies on polyketide synthase genes from different lichen groups suggest a high level of gene paralogy. In this context, clades of orthologous polyketide synthase genes, which are often shared with distantly related non-lichenized fungi, can roughly be identified by their sequence similarity and their similar patterns of substitution rates. The functional assignment of paralogs is nevertheless difficult and reasonable only in a few cases. A global approach of the lichen metabolomic features appears to be essential in developing new and viable biotechnological processes which could afford suitable amounts of unique lichen compounds.

More than 80 years after the discovery of the essentiality of vitamin E for mammals, the molecular basis of its action is still an enigma. From the eight different forms of vitamin E, only α-tocopherol is retained in the body. This is in part due to the specific selection of RRR-α-tocopherol by the α-tocopherol transfer protein and in part by its low rate of degradation and elimination compared with the other vitamers. Since the tocopherols have comparable antioxidant properties and some tocotrienols are even more effective in scavenging radicals, the antioxidant capacity cannot be the explanation for its essentiality, at least not the only one. In the last decade, a high number of so-called novel functions of almost all forms of vitamin E have been described, including regulation of cellular signalling and gene expression. α-Tocopherol appears to be most involved in gene regulation, whereas γ-tocopherol appears to be highly effective in preventing cancer-related processes. Tocotrienols appear to be effective in amelioration of neurodegeneration. Most of the novel functions of individual forms of vitamin E have been demonstrated in vitro only and require in vivo confirmation. The distinct bioactivities of the various vitamers are discussed, considering their metabolism and the potential functions of metabolites.