For management and/or research purposes, chimpanzee mothers and their offspring are often physically separated from one another at an earlier age than they would be in the wild. Studies of the behavioural and physiological effects of mother-infant separation on infant behaviour have been conducted in both human and nonhuman primates. However, few studies have been conducted to examine the response of the mother to separation from her infant, particularly in great apes. The current study opportunistically examined the response of twelve chimpanzee mothers to separation from 15 of their offspring ranging from 1.8 to 5.4 years of age. Behavioural data (proximity of the mother to other group members, and fifteen behaviours representing six categories [agonistic, prosocial, vocalisations, abnormal, locomotor, inactive]) were collected for three weeks prior to and three to five weeks following the permanent removal of the offspring from their mothers. A repeated measures MANOVA conducted on all subjects revealed no significant change in behaviour following separation. There was a significant increase in inactivity following separation of the offspring (F2.21 = 5.47, P < 0.05) in a subgroup of mothers (n = 8) that was studied more intensively on the first day of separation. Maternal age, infant age, presence of other offspring, and past experience with mother-offspring separation had no effect on response to separation. These results contradict those of mother-infant separation studies in monkeys and indicate that most behavioural indicators of well-being are stable in chimpanzee mothers that remain in their familiar environment and social group following offspring separation.

Chimpanzees are sometimes housed in conditions of restricted social contact during use in biomedical research, a practice that may adversely affect their behaviour. This study measured the impact of such conditions on levels of stereotyped body rocking in six young, nursery-reared chimpanzees. Subject age at the beginning of the biomedical research protocol ranged from 1.1 to 3.8 years. Over a six-month period the subjects were moved to a different facility. During this time they were used in a biomedical research study which involved some periods of single housing. They were then returned to their original facility. The percentage of time subjects devoted to stereotyped rocking was measured for 36 weeks before and 36 weeks after participation in the biomedical protocol. Data on body rocking were also analysed for a post-test control group of animals (n = 9) who had a similar history of handrearing, but who did not leave the facility to participate in a biomedical research study. The behavioural analyses included 263 hours of focal animal observational data and revealed that the experimental subjects devoted equivalent amounts of time to rocking before and after participation in the biomedical research protocol. The experimental subjects and the control subjects showed similar levels of rocking. These findings indicate that participation in this particular short-term biomedical research protocol did not affect the expression of stereotyped rocking in chimpanzees.

Animals within zoo environments are learning continuously: they learn signals that predict when food is going to arrive or that the presence of a certain person means that something unpleasant may happen. They may learn to control their environment and caregivers: for example, they may learn that if they perform a particular behaviour (eg repetitive behaviour) they will receive a reward (ie food or attention from a caregiver). Using standard operant conditioning and classical conditioning techniques we can easily modify the behaviour of animals in zoos. Animals can be trained to comply with almost all minor veterinary procedures and examinations, such as injection, the measurement of heart rate, the cleaning of teeth and the treatment of superficial injuries. Compliance can be achieved using standard animal learning abilities without the need for punishment type I (ie physical punishment) or immobilisation (chemical or physical). In this paper we discuss how we apply learning theory to such procedures, the dangers associated with such programs (eg injury to the trainer) and the benefits (eg the treatment of large endangered animal species without the use of anaesthetic drugs). Additionally, we briefly discuss the selection and management of animal trainers. The methods we describe here are equally applicable to laboratory, farm and pet animals. Finally, as with all management processes applied to animals, a written policy on animal training needs to be produced by any institution training animals.

This study compared the effectiveness of kraft wrapping paper and rubber toys as enrichment for 22 chimpanzees group-housed in conventional indoor/outdoor runs. Objects were tested separately during 67 hours of data collection using a group scan sampling technique. Paper was used a mean 27 per cent of the available time, while the Kong Toys™ were used a mean 10 per cent of the available time. The degree of object manipulation and object contact was higher with the paper, but the level of social play and solitary play with the object was not differentially affected by the two objects. The objects had differing effects on the subjects’ levels of grooming, but affiliation, agonism, inactivity and sexual behaviour did not vary according to the object being used. A gender-by-age interaction was found, with immature males exhibiting the highest levels of solitary play with objects. Object use steadily declined over the first hour of exposure, showing evidence of habituation. Object use when the Kong Toy™ was present declined over the course of the study, but use of the paper remained consistent. Texture, destructibility, portability, complexity and adaptability may be important in determining the object's value as effective enrichment. The destructible wrapping paper was a more worthwhile enrichment object than the indestructible Kong Toy™ for the captive chimpanzees in this study.

Positive reinforcement training is one component of behavioural management employed to improve psychological well-being. There has been regulatory promotion to compensate for restricted social housing in part by providing human interaction to singly caged primates, implying an efficacy standard for evaluating human interaction. The effect of positive reinforcement training on the behaviour of 61 singly housed laboratory rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was evaluated at two large primate facilities. Training involved body part presentation and basic control behaviours. Baseline data were compared to two treatment phases presented in varying order across individuals, six minutes per week of positive reinforcement training and six minutes per week of unstructured human interaction. While a MANOVA involving behavioural categories and study conditions across study subjects was significant, univariate ANOVAs found no effect of phase within any behavioural category. Categorising subjects according to rearing, housing facility, or baseline levels of abnormal behaviour did not reveal changes in behaviour with positive reinforcement training or human interaction. This study failed to detect, to any degree, the types of behavioural changes documented in the scientific literature to result from pairing singly housed monkeys. Implementing short durations of positive reinforcement training across large numbers of singly housed animals may not be the most effective manner for incorporating positive reinforcement training in the behavioural management of laboratory macaques. Rather, directing efforts toward individuals with specific behavioural, management, clinical, research or therapeutic needs may represent a more fruitful approach to improving psychological well-being with this technique.

In an effort to enhance welfare, behavioural management continually refines methods of non-human primate (NHP) care. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are one of the most cognitively complex captive NHPs and they have been observed to self-medicate in the wild. The population of captive chimpanzees in the US is aged (due to a breeding moratorium instituted in 1998) and will progressively require more medical care as they get older. To functionally simulate natural self-medication behaviour, provide chimpanzees with the opportunity to voluntarily participate in their own healthcare, and open new avenues of communication between caregivers and chimpanzees, we used a medication choice paradigm that allowed chimpanzees to choose their daily arthritis medication. We provided four arthritic, mobility-impaired chimpanzees with meloxicam or ibuprofen in blue or green Gatorade® to establish associations between the coloured drinks and the effects of the medications. We subsequently gave each chimpanzee a choice between the two medications. Behaviour was recorded using 15-min focal animal observations. Mobility was assessed using interactive mobility tests and a caregiver-rating system. One chimpanzee showed a medication preference (ibuprofen over meloxicam). The chimpanzees exhibited no significant behavioural or mobility differences over time, suggesting that ibuprofen and meloxicam may not differ significantly in their ability to alleviate arthritic symptoms. Whether or not the chimpanzees show a medication preference, the opportunity to make meaningful choices and the functional simulation of a complex behaviour, self-medication, is present when using this medication choice technique. Furthermore, the paradigm itself could have potential applications for additional medication options and treatment regimens.

This paper is based on a presentation I gave to the Childhood Trauma Conference in Melbourne, Australia, August 2014.

Children traumatised within their biological families are described as children who have experienced complex trauma, also called developmental trauma because of the profound impact it has on their development. These children present a range of challenging behaviours within their foster or adoptive families. They respond less well to traditional behavioural management and benefit more from regulatory and relationship-based parenting. This is parenting that focuses on helping the children to regulate their emotional experience through the emotional connection between parent and child before attention is given to the behaviour. Developmentally traumatised children have a foundation of mistrust of parents and thus experience management of behaviour as signs that they are going to be hurt or rejected again. These children need parents who can connect with the child's experience before, or when appropriate instead of, discipline. This is described here as ‘connection before correction’. Correction in this context means helping children to develop pro-social behaviours and to find safe ways to express intense emotional experience. This paper explores the difficulties that the children can experience living in families; how this is expressed through behaviours, and how parents can connect in ways that promote the building of trust and allows successful management of their behaviour.

The acceptability of behaviour management methods has become an important area of concern. However, most research has focused on behaviour support plans. This study evaluated the acceptability of a restrictive procedure used in dentistry: the hand over mouth technique. Two-hundred-and-eighteen members of the general public rated one of eight vignettes using the Treatment Evaluation Inventory. A 3-factor independent groups design evaluated the effects of child disability (average intelligence or moderate learning disability), intervention method (relaxation training and reinforcement or hand over mouth) and behavioural outcome (child became less distressed or child remained distressed). A significant main effect of treatment outcome was found, and effective treatments were rated as more acceptable than ineffective treatments. There was a marginal effect of treatment type, hand over mouth being rated as less acceptable than the use of reinforcement and relaxation. Where child behaviour problems are marked, the public's ratings of acceptability are largely influenced by the outcome of treatment.